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OUTLINES 

OF 

OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY 



LANSING 



OUTLINES 



OF THE 



Archaeology of the Old Testament 



PRINTED FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS OF THE 

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF THE REFORMED 

(DUTCH) CHURCH IN AMERICA AT 

NEW BRUNSWICK, N. J. 



BY 



Rev. J. G. LANSING, D. D. 



Gardner A. Sage Professor of Old Testament Languages and 

Exegesis, and Author of An Arabic Manual, and 

Introduction Outlines of the Books of 

the Old Testament. 



( DSC 24 V 






NEW BRUNSWICK, N. J. 

J. HEIDINGSFELD, PRINTER, 42 ALBANY STREET 

1896 






COPYRIGHT BY J. G. LANSING 

1896 






CO 



OUTLINES 

OF 

OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 



I.— Definitions. 



1. The Exegeiical Theology of the Old Testament 
includes everything relating to the exposition and 
elucidation of the Old Testament Scriptures. Hence 
it embraces Exegesis as an art, and all the branches 
of knowledge auxiliary to that art. In Biblical The- 
ology we have presented the results of Exegetical 
Theology. 

2. To Exegetical Theology belong 

a. Biblical Philology. (See Introductory Statement 
in the Author's Introduction Outlines of the Books of 
the Old Testament.) 

b. Biblical Archaeology. 

c. Biblical Introduction, General and Special. (On 
Special Introduction see the Author's Introduction 
Outlines of the Books of the Old Testament.) 



4 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

d. Biblical Criticism, Textual and Literary or Higher. 

e. Biblical Herrneneutics, including Hermeneutics 
proper and Exegesis. 

3. a. Biblical Philology is a knowledge of the origi- 
nal languages of the Holy Scriptures. It is the science 
of the sacred words. 

b. Biblical Archceology is the science of sacred 
things as over against sacred words. It treats of 
Scriptural geography and ethnography. 

c. Biblical Introduction is a knowledge of the rise 
and history of the Canon both as a whole and in its 
separate parts. 

d. Biblical Criticism is a knowledge of the laws 
which determine the incorruptness or integrity of the 
text in its individual parts (= Textual Criticism), as 
also the laws in accordance with which we are to judge 
the canonicity, genuineness, and authenticity of an 
entire writing as a whole (= Literary or Higher Criti- 
cism). 

e. Biblical Hermeneutics is a knowledge of the rules 
of interpretation or the laws of exposition. It treats 
of the principles in accordance with which the Holy 
Scriptures are to be interpreted. Exegesis is the actu- 
alizing of Hermeneutics, the art of which Hermeneutics 
is the science. The one gives the theory, the other 
reduces it to practice. In Exegesis we have the expo- 
sition and explanation of the Holy Scriptures. 

4. The Biblical Archeology of the Old Testament is 
a knowledge of the sacred things of the Old Testament, 
as over against its sacred words. 

As the grammar and lexicon are necessary to the 
understanding of the words of the Bible, so to a thor- 
ough understanding of the things of the Bible, a 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 5 

knowledge of the historical, physical, geographical, 
statistical, economical, political and social relations 
and circumstances under which the Bible was pro- 
duced, is necessary. 

Moreover, a knowledge of the antiquities of other 
nations is necessary, so far as these have any direct 
bearing upon any passage of Scripture : — that is, the 
antiquities of those nations that came in contact with 
the Hebrews, either on account of race relationship, 
such as the Arabians, Arama3ans, Canaanites, Philis- 
tines, etc., or through some political combination, 
such as the Egyptians, Assyrians, Chaldpeans, Per- 
sians, Greeks and Romans. 

II.— Sources of Biblical Archaeology. 

The sources of the science of Biblical Archaeology 
comprise 

1. Ancient monuments and buildings, plastic repre- 
sentations, inscriptions and coins, the ruins of such 
cities as Baalbec, Palmyra, Nineveh, Petra, Zoan- 
Tanis, etc., and the ancient temples and palaces of 
Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Phoenicia, Persia and 
Syria with their plastic and pictorial representations. 

2. Written sources: as 

a. The Canonical Scriptures of the Old and New 
Testaments. 

b. The Apocryphal books of the Old Testament, 
especially the books of the Maccabees. 

c. The writings of Philo of Alexandria (died about 
A. D. 40), and of Joseph us, a Jewish priest, born 
A. D. 37 at Jerusalem, died at Rome after 103, and 
whose espeeialty valuable works are his Antiquities of 
the Jeivs, and his History of the Jeivish War. 



6 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

d. The Targums or Chaldee paraphrases. 

e. The Talmud (= Teaching, Doctrine) treating of 
Jewish theology and jurisprudence, and consisting of 
two parts, the Mishna (= Repetition, the Second Law) 
and the Gemara (== Supplement, Conclusion, i, e., of 
rabbinical wisdom). The Mishna is a digest of rab- 
binical traditions concerning the Mosaic law, and was 
reduced to writing in its present form by R. Jehudah 
the Holy, Patriarch of Tiberias at the close of the 
second or early part of the third century. The Gemara 
is a commentary on the text of the Mishna. There 
are two Gemaras, the Palestinian (compiled about 
A. D. 390), and the Babylonian (A. D. 500). The 
Mishna is more important than the Gemara for Biblical 
Archaeology. 

/. Ancient Greek and Latin writers as Xenophon, 
Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, Pliny, 
Tacitus, and especially Herodotus. 

g. Oriental writers as the Arabic geographers and 
natural philosophers, the religious books of the Arabs 
and Parsees (Kuran and Zend-Avesta), and such 
writers as Jerome and Ephradin the Syrian. 

In. Modern scientific works of exploration, research, 
travel, etc. 

III.— Material of Biblical Archaeology. 

As to its material, the Biblical Archeology of the 
Old Testament treats of the Geography and Ethnogra- 
phy of the Old Testament Scriptures and the Jews. 
The terms are used in their broad sense; thus under 
Ethnography is included also the literature, science 
and arts cultivated by the Jews, as well as antiquities. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCH/EOLOGY. 



OLD TESTAMENT GEOGRAPHY. 
IV.— Parts and Definitions. 

The Biblical Geography of the Old Testament is 
threefold: — Political, Physical and Topographical. 

1. The Political Geography of the Old Testament 
describes the countries of the Old Testament as divided 
and occupied by various nations, and improved by 
human art and industry. 

2. The Physical Geography of the Old Testament 
describes the actual state of the surface of these Old 
Testament countries in respect to the three great divi- 
sions — land, sea and air, together with the natural 
history (Physica Sacra) of these divisions. 

3. The Topographical Geography of the Old Testa- 
ment describes a particular place, city or town in any 
one of these Old Testament countries at different 
periods. 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE. 
V.— Definition. 

The term Palestine is here employed as denoting the 
whole land allotted to the twelve tribes of Israel by 
Joshua. 



8 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

VI.— Names. 

The land of Palestine is variously called 

1. Philistia, Palsestina whence Palestine. Joel 3: 4 
(4:4). 

2. Canaan. Gen. 9:18; 10:15-19. 

3. The Land of Promise. Gen. 13 : 15. 

4. The Land of Jehovah. Hos. 9:3. 

5. The Land of Israel. 1 Sam. 13: 19. 

6. The Land. Ruth 1 : 1 ; Jer. 12:11. 

7. The Land of Judah, i. e. Judsea. Isa. 26: 1. 

8. The Holy Land. Zech. 2 : 12 (2 : 16). 

VII.— Boundaries. 

That is, the geographical situation and dimensions 
of the land at different periods. For the fuller treat- 
ment of this subject see the two following sections. 

1. Geographical Position. Palestine is central yet 
isolated. It stood midway between the three greatest 
nations of antiquity, viz. Egypt, Assyria and Greece; 
and yet it was isolated from these by having the desert 
of Shur on the south, the north Arabian desert extend- 
ing to the Euphrates on the east, and the Mediterra- 
nean Sea on the west. Syria lay to the north, but 
even here the lofty chains of Lebanon and Hermon 
served in part to complete the isolation. 

2. Natural Boundaries and Dimensions. 

a. Of the Land as promised to Abraham. Gen. 12:7; 
13:14, 15; 15:18; Ex. 23:31. That is, the country 
promised to the patriarch extended from the banks of 
the Nile to the Euphrates. This territory was given 
on conditions, but as the people did not fulfil the con- 
ditions the whole land promised was not given. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCH/EOLOGY. 9 

b. Of the Land as described by Moses. Num. 34: 
1-12. It was more limited in extent than that prom- 
ised to Abraham. The boundaries are defined with 
great precision in the passage cited Num. 34 : 1-12. 

c. Of the Land as allotted by Moses and Joshua to 
the twelve tribes. The boundaries of the land on the 
east of the Jordan are given in Num. Ch. 32 and Josh. 
13:8-32, and on the west of the Jordan in Josh. Chs. 
15-19. The north border was Zidon on the coast, and 
the south was identical with that of b above. 

d. Of the Land in the prophetic vision of Ezekiel. 
Ezek. 47 : 13-23. It was conterminous on the southwest 
and north with that of Moses. But it also included 
the kingdom of Damascus besides the possessions of 
Reuben, Gad and half Manasseh. 

3. Politico-Historical Boundaries and Dimensions. 

a. Before the conquest of the land by the Israelites. 
The natural boundaries described in 1, this §; Canaan 
comprising the land west of the Jordan, Bashan and 
Gilead east of Jordan. 

b. After the conquest of the land and as distributed 
to the twelve tribes. See § 9, 3. 

c. During the Monarchy. 1093-586 B. C. Under 
Solomon the political boundaries touched the Euphrates 
on the east and the Syrian Hamath on the north. See 
§8, 3. 

d. Under the Maccabees. 100 B. C. See § 8, 4. 

e. Under Herod the Great. 40 B. C. 

In the time of our Lord, under Agrippa I., and at 
the Destruction of Jerusalem, the boundaries and 
dimensions of the Land were nearly identical with its 
boundaries and dimensions under Herod the Great. 



10 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

VIII.— Divisions (Territorial). 

Territorial divisions adjacent to but not included in 
Palestine proper are also referred to in this section. 

1. Palestine before the Conquest. 

As territorial divisions went largely by the names of 
the inhabitants occupying them there must be taken 
especially in connection with this part of this section 
those parts of the section following that refer to the 
primitive and patriarchal inhabitants of Palestine. 
This is especially true of Canaan or that great part of 
Palestine proper lying west of the Jordan. This part 
of this section refers to certain territorial divisions 
mentioned in the Old Testament and lying both in and 
adjacent to Palestine. For those not mentioned here 
see next §, and § 12, 1, 2, 3. 

a. Ammon, Deut. Ch. 2. East of Moab. Moab 
see below. 

b. Arabah. Deut. 1:1. The great desert valley 
west of Mt. Seir (see below) and extending from the 
Dead Sea south to the Gulf of Akabah. Indeed it 
may be said to extend from Mt. Hermon to this point, 
so taking in the Jordan Valley. 

c. Argob. Deut. 4:4, 13. A province of Bashan. 
See next. 

d. Bashan. Gen. 14:5. The large district east of 
the Jordan and over against the northern part of Pal- 
estine. Limits : — border of Gilead on the south to Mt. 
Hermon on the north, and from the Jordan Valley on 
the west to Salcah on the east. The territory was for- 
merly occupied by the Rephaim and afterwards by the 
half tribe of Manasseh. The chief cities were Ashta- 
roth, Beeshterah, Edrei, Golan, Salcah and possibly 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 11 

Mahauaim. Golan and Salcah were afterwards allotted 
to the Levites, Golan being also a City of Refuge. See 
Topographical Geography. 

e. Canaan. Gen. 13:12. The territory lying be- 
tween the Mediterranean on the west and the Jordan 
and Dead Sea on the east, and occupied by several 
Canaanitish tribes. See § 9. According to Gen. ch. 
10, Canaan extended as far north as Hamath and 
Arvad. 

f. Ciccar. Gen. 13:10 The Jordan Valley from 
Jericho and the northern extremity of the Dead Sea to 
Succoth, north. Cities: — Sodom, Gomorrah, Zeboim, 
Admah, and Bela afterwards called Zoar. See § 18. 

g. Eclom. Num. 24:18. Extends from the south- 
eastern border of Palestine, east to the borders of 
Moab, and south including what was properly called 
the land or mountain of Seir. 

h. Gilead. Gen. 31 : 21 ; Dent. 3 : 12-17. The moun- 
tainous district east of the Jordan, bounded on the 
north by Bashan, on the east by the Arabian plateau, 
and south by Moab and Ammon. Afterwards com- 
prised the territory of Reuben, Gad, and extreme 
southern portion of Manasseh. The aborigines were 
the Zuzim. See § 9. 

i. Midian. Ex. 2:15. Extends from the Sinaitic 
desert to the far east and north. 

j. Mishor. Deut. 3:10; 4:43. The plateau of 
Moab bordering Gilead on the south and east, and in 
which was Bezer, a City of Refuge. 

h. Moab. Gen. Ch. 19. The territory lying east of 
the southern portion of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, 
and having Gilead on the north. Composed of "the 
field of Moab," Ruth Ch. 1, " the land of Moab," Deut, 



12 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Ch. 1, and the " plains " or deserts " of Moab" oppo- 
site Jericho. 

1. Negeb, i. e. the South Country. Gen. 13:1. The 
district south of Hebron. 

m. Seir. Gen. 14:6. The mountainous ridge or 
tract, east of the valley of the Arabah (see above), and 
extending south from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 
Akabah. Territory formerly occupied by the Horites. 
See § 9. 

n. Shephelah. Deut. 1:7. The low hill districts 
afterwards comprised in Judea and Samaria. 

o. Vale of Siddim. Gen. 14:3. About same as 
Ciccar. See above. 

p. Tob. Judg. 11:3, 5. A Syrian district north- 
east of Gilead. 

q. Us. Job 1:1. Territory adjacent to Edom. 

r. Wilderness of Shur. Gen. 16:7. The desert 
extending between Palestine and Egypt and bordering 
on the Mediterranean. 

Note. — For other territorial divisions not mentioned 
here see § 9, and § 12, 1, 2, 3. 

2. Palestine after the Conquest and as divided to 
the twelve tribes. 

Beginning east of the Jordan the territory formerly 
occupied by the two kingdoms of Og, king of Bashan, 
and Sihon, king of the Amorites, was divided between 
the two and a half tribes. 

a. Reuben occupied the southern half of the king- 
dom of Sihon, i. e. the plateau of the Mishor (this §, 1, j). 
Reuben's boundaries were, on the south the river 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 13 

Anion; west, the Dead Sea; north, territory of Gad; 
east, Amnion. 

b. Gad occupied the territory extending from Reu- 
ben on the south to Mahanaim and Ramath-Mizpeh 
cities on the Manasseh boundary to the north. He 
had the Jordan Valley east of the river and the terri- 
tory of Mt. Gilead lying half of it north and half of it 
south the river Jabbok. Formerly it comprised the 
northern half of the kingdom of Sihon and the south- 
ern portion of the kingdom of Og. 

c. Manasseh, the transjordanic half of the tribe, 
occupied the broad plains of Bashan to the north (this 
§, 1, d). This territory of Manasseh was nearly double 
that of Gad or Judah, but a great portion of it was 
desert. 

Passing to the west of the Jordan 

d. Simeon occupied the southern extremity of Pal- 
estine and territory given up by Judah. It stretched 
across Palestine from the Dead Sea and south of the 
Dead Sea (wilderness of Zin) on the east to the Philis- 
tine plain and the Mediterranean on the west. The 
southern border was the desert, and the northern 
boundary line was marked by certain towns on the 
southern border of and belonging to Judah, viz. Anab, 
Jattir, Zanoah, Eglon, etc. Josh. Ch. 15. 

e. Judah possessed the largest share of the territory 
west of the Jordan, as, including the territory it after- 
wards gave up to Simeon, it embraced the five districts 
of the Arabah or Jordan Valley, the Har or mountain, 
the Shephelah, the Negeb, the Midbar (see this §,1), 
south to and beyond Kadesh Barnea and Hezron, after- 
wards the southern boundary of Simeon. Judah had 
the Dead Sea and the Jordan on the east, and the 



14 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHvEOLOGY. 

plain of Philistia and the Mediterranean on the west. 
On the north of Judah were the territories of Benjamin 
and Dan. The boundary line between Judah on the 
south and Benjamin and Dan on the north is marked 
by the following places beginning east and going west: 
viz. the mouth of the Jordan ; the Valley of Achor, 
leaving Gilgal to the north; to the "going up of 
Adummim"; beside the Valley of Ben Hinnom south 
of Jebus (Jerusalem) ; to Bethlehem (formerly called 
Ephrath or Ephratah) in Judah; to the Waters of 
Nephtoah; to Kirjath Jearim and Beth Shemesh; to 
Timnah south of the Valley of Sorek ; to Ekron ; to 
Gezer; west to the stream which falls into the Medi- 
terranean near Jabneel (Yebnah). Josh. Ch. 15. 

/. Benjamin lay north of the eastern half of Judah, 
the southern border of Benjamin coinciding with the 
northern border of Judah lying between Kirjath Jearim 
east to the Jordan. The eastern boundary being the 
Jordan, the northern boundary line, separating it from 
Ephraim, passed from the Jordan to the " shoulder of 
Jericho on the north " ; then to the desert northeast of 
Bethel; southward to Bethel (formerly Luz) ; still 
south to Archi; then west to Ataroth Adar. A line 
drawn from Ataroth Adar, south to Kirjath Jearim, 
marked the western boundary separating it from the 
southern portion of the territory of Dan. Josh. Ch. 18. 

g. Dan. The territory of Dan was carved out of 
the country of Ephraim. The original border of 
Ephraim marched with that of Benjamin to the sea. 
But the Shephelah below Bethhoron, and the Sharon 
plain near Jaffa were given to Dan. The west boun- 
dary was the sea or Philistine plain; the northeast 
boundary was Ephraim ; the south and southeast 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 15 

boundaries were those described for Benjamin (east) 
and Judah (south). The north boundary of Dan is 
given in Josh. 19:46. 

h. Ephraim had Dan on the west and Benjamin on 
the south, as described above. The northern boun- 
dary was the Brook Kanah, and Shechem (in the terri- 
tory of Manasseh). The eastern boundary approached 
but did not include the Valley of the Jordan (also in 
the territory of Manasseh). Josh. Ch. 17. 

i. Manasseh. The greatest limits of the large ter- 
ritory of Manasseh were on the east and west. On the 
east it extended along the Jordan Valley from the 
plains of Jericho on the south to near the valley of 
Jezreel on the north; on the west it extended from 
the Brook Kanah on the south to Mt. Carmel in the 
north. Its central portion was the narrowest, extend- 
ing from Shechem on the south to a point south of 
Ibleam in the north. West of Ibleam the boundary 
line ran north to Mt. Carmel, leaving Issachar and the 
southern portion of Zebulon on the east. Josh. Ch. 17. 

j. Issachar possessed the great central plateau, with 
Manasseh on the south and west, and Zebulon and 
Naphtali on the north. On the east the boundary 
extended to Jordan. 

k. Zebulon had Issachar on the south and the most 
northern section of Manasseh on the southwest. To 
the north lay the territory of Asher and a part of the 
territory of Naphtali. To the west lay the sea. On 
the east Zebulon did not reach to the Jordan and the 
Sea of Galilee, as between it and the Sea of Galilee is 
a broad plateau in which many towns belonging to 
Naphtali are now identified. Josh. Chs. 19 and 21. 

I. Asher extended northward from Zebulon along 



16 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

the sea, with Naphtali on the east. The border be- 
tween Asher and Naphtali is defined by the cities 
existing along it (Josh. 19: 25). While Naphtali held 
the higher mountains eastward, Asher held the plain, 
and the lower olive- bearing hills westward. Josh. 
Ch. 19. 

m. Naphtali. The western border of Naphtali was 
Asher following the border towns given in Josh. 19 : 25. 
On the south were Zebulon and Issaehar. On the east 
Naphtali had the Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, the 
Waters of Merom, to the northernmost point of the 
Land. Josh. Ch. 19. 

3. Palestine under the Judges and the Monarchy. 

After the death of Joshua and during the period of 
the Judges the history of the Land is one of constant 
fluctuations in the fortunes of Israel, of the loss and 
recovery of territory. A number of districts and many 
cities remained in the possession of the former inhabi- 
tants. The Canaanites who were not exterminated by 
Joshua held their own after his death. The Philistines 
still possessed the maritime plain of the southwest. 
The Jebusites continued to hold part of Jerusalem. A 
good part of the territory of Dan was still held b} T the 
Amorite mountaineers. And many cities in different 
parts of the country were still not captured by the 
Israelites. During the period of the Judges a slight 
change takes place in the geography of Israelitish pos- 
sessions east of the Jordan. That is, they were gradu- 
ally extended, the prohibition to annex the land of 
Amnion and Moab (Dent. 2:9, 37) being disregarded. 
From this time the Ammonites, like the Canaanites, 
are reckoned as enemies of Israel. 

The sword of David carved out the kingdom inher- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 1? 

ited by Solomon, With the consolidation of the Jew- 
ish Kingdom under Solomon we find changes in the 
general geography of the Laud. The Philistines had 
been driven back to their plains, retaining, however, 
the strongholds of Gath and Gezer. Rabbah, the 
capital of the Ammonites, had been taken. The Jebu- 
siteshad been entirely dispossessed of Jerusalem. The 
census embraced all the Holy Land, from Beersheba to 
Sidon, ruled by the King at Jerusalem. In the time 
of Solomon Gezer was taken by the Egyptians and then 
given as the dower of his Egyptian wife (1 Ki. 9:16). 
The Syrian Hamath in the far north was conquered 
(2 Chron. 8:3, 4). The whole country west of the 
river Euphrates from Hamath in the far north and as 
far as Gaza on the south was reckoned as being subject 
to Solomon (1 Ki. 4:24; 2 Chron. 9:26). The land of 
the Philistines is not, however, included, and the 
Canaanites were not exterminated, but reduced to pay 
tribute (2 Chron. 8:7). 

The dominions of Solomon were divided into twelve 
provinces, each with an officer appointed over it. 
These twelve provinces corresponded roughly to the 
tribes of Israel, without counting Simeon, and treating 
the two halves of Manasseh as separate tribes. The 
provinces are as follows : 

First province, Mount Ephraim (1 Ki. 4:7). 

Second province, corresponds to the territory of Dan. 

Third province, was coextensive with the land of 
Judah. 

Fourth province, corresponds to the land of Manas- 
seh. 

Fifth province, was equivalent to the territory of 
Issachar. 
[2] 



18 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Sixth province, corresponds to Manasseh beyond 
Jordan. 

Seventh province, corresponds to the territory of Gad. 

Eighth province, was Naphtali. 

Ninth province, was Asher. 

Tenth province, territory of Zebnlon and northern 
part of Issachar. 

Eleventh province, was Benjamin. 

Twelfth province, corresponds to the territory of 
Reuben. 

The name of Simeon does not occur in this connec- 
tion, nor is the territory of Simeon made into a sepa- 
rate province. In 1 Chron. 4:31 we find that the cities 
of Simeon mentioned as belonging to that tribe " unto 
the reign of David," while, at a later period, and in 
1 Ki. 19:3 and Neh. 11:25, they are enumerated as 
belonging to Judah. The "strangers " of Simeon are 
noticed as assisting King Asa (2 Chron. 15:9). In 
short the prophecy of Jacob seems thus to have been 
fulfilled in the case of Simeon: " I will divide them in 
Jacob, and scatter them in Israel." Gen. 48: 7. 

With the accession of Rehoboam came the division 
of the Kingdom into the southern Kingdom of Judah, 
composed of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and 
the northern Kingdom of Israel, composed of the re- 
maining tribes. The geographical boundaries were 
also slightly changed. The northern boundary of the 
Kingdom of Judah ran from the Jordan Valley west- 
ward along the strong valley of Mich mash, dividing 
the land of Benjamin in two, and so westward to the 
Philistine plain on the sea, having Aijalon on its 
northwest border. The full extent of the land of Ben- 
jamin was apparently only held by Abijah, Rehoboam's 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 19 

successor, when Bethel, Jeshanah and Ephraim were 
taken from Jeroboam (2 Chron. 13: 19). 

The later history of the kingdom is one of continual 
loss of territory. The country east of the Jordan was 
overrun by the Moabites and Ammonites. The south- 
ern port of Ezion-geber remained in the hands of the 
Jews as late as the time of Uzziah (808 B. C), but in 
the time of Ahaz (740 B. C), the town appears to have 
been lost (2 Ki. 16:6), being taken bj^ the Syrians. 
The seaport of Joppa was also probably lost as the 
Philistine advances not only extended over the Mari- 
time Phi in and the Negeb, but overran the Shephelah. 
On the south the Edomites encroached on the King- 
dom of Judah, until finally the extent of country ruled 
by Ahaz of Judah did not probably exceed 300 square 
miles, as over against the 30,000 square miles of Solo- 
mon's dominions. 

After the Captivity the territory reoccupied by the 
Jews under Neheiniah is indicated by the names of its 
various towns (Ezra 2 : 21-35 ; Neh. 7:24-38; Neh. 11: 
25-35). None of the places there mentioned were 
north of the old boundary at Bethel, but many cities 
of Dan and Simeon were included. The children of 
Judah repeopled the land from Jerusalem to Beer- 
sheba and from Jericho to Lachish. The Benjaminites 
reoccupied the whole of their old tribe territory and a 
portion belonging to Dan. The country repopulated 
had an area of about 2,000 square miles, or a district 
about equal to the whole Kingdom of Judah at its 
most prosperous period. Philistia remained as ever 
unconquered. The Idumseans or Edomites seem to 
have been driven back to their deserts. Finally, in 
the time of Nehemiah, the Arabs are for the first time 



20 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

enumerated among the enemies of the Jews, with the 
Ammonites, Samaritans, and Philistiues of Ashdod 
(Neh. 4:7). 

4. Palestine during the Asmon?ean Period. 

Asinona^an or Hasmonean is the proper designation 
of the family of the priest Mattathias, whose sons be- 
came better known by the surname of the Maccabees. 

Palestine having passed from the control of the Per- 
sians to the Greek Monarchy was ruled under the Se- 
leucid?e by governors appointed by the King at 
Antioch. With Mattathias (167 B C.) began the 
exploits of the Maccabees in delivering the Jewish 
people from the oppressive yoke of the S}Tian Seleu- 
cid?e, which was accomplished by Jonathan, son of 
Mattathias. The territory thus recovered and made 
free by the Maccabees was substantially that recognized 
in the Herodian period as forming the limits of the 
Holy Land. The integrity of the kingdom was, how- 
ever, materially affected by the existence of a hereti- 
cal and ungovernable central province; and the Jew- 
ish hatred of Samaritans, which caused them in the 
time of Christ to avoid even the mention of Samaria, 
had no doubt arisen before Maccabsean times, and had 
been fostered by the assistance given on various occa- 
sions to the Greeks b} 7 the Samaritans. 

IX.— Inhabitants and Politico-Historical Divisions. 

1. Primitive inhabitants and territory occupied by 
them. These aborigines are for the most represented 
as being giants. They were conquered and dispossessed 
by the Canaanitish tribes enumerated under 2 imme- 
diately following. These giant nations were 

a. Anakim. Num. 13:33, 34; Josh 11: 21, 22. In- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 21 

habited southern and western Palestine, particularly 
the vicinity of Hebron. 

b. Arim. Josh 13:3. The aborigines of southwest- 
ern Palestine driven out by the Philistines. 

c. Emim. Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:10, 11. Occupied 
the plateau of Moab. The Emim were related to the 
Anakim, and were generally called by the same name, 
but their conquerers, the Moabites, termed them 
Emim. 

d. Griborim. Mentioned in connection with the 
Xephilim (see below) in Gen. 6:4. 

e. Horim. Deut. 2:11. Dwelt in eastern and 
southern Edom, in Petra, and perhaps in southern 
Palestine. They were dispossessed by the children of 
Esau and Ishinael. 

/. Nephillm. Mentioned only in Gen. 6:4 and 
Num. 13:33. By some the Nephilim are identified 
with the Rephaim (see below), but the former seem to 
belong to an earlier period, and are not necessarily 
connected with the latter. 

g. Rephaim. Gen. 14:5; 15:20, etc. They dwelt 
in Bashan and to the south of Damascus, and beside 
Jerusalem. The Rephaim were succeeded by the 
Amorites. 

//. Zamzummim. Deut. 2:20. This was the Ara- 
monitish name for the Rephaim (see just above). 

i. Zuzim. Inhabited the territory or part of the ter- 
ritory afterward Gileacl. 

2. Inhabitants during the patriarchal period and 
territory possessed by them. The gigantic races of the 
aborigines gradually disappeared before the tribes of 
the Canaanites. These Canaanite tribes and a few ad- 
jacent tribes are as follows: 



22 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

a. Amalekites. Gen. 14:7; 36:12,16. They ex- 
tended from the Red Sea across the Wilderness of the 
Wanderings to southern Judah. 

b. Ammonites. Deut. 2:37. East of the Jordan. 

c. Amorites, or " mountaineers. 1 ' Gen 10:16; Ex. 
3:8; 13:5, etc. They dwelt both east and west of the 
Jordan, and from the north to the south of Palestine. 

d. Arkites. Gen. 10:17. Near Acre, in Lebanon, 
north of Tripoli. 

e. Arvadites. Gen. 10:18. Dwelt near Aradus, 
an island on the coast, some thirty miles north of Tri- 
poli. 

/. Canaanites, or "lowlanders!" Gen. 10:19; Josh. 
11:3. Occupied the Maritime Plain from Gaza to Si- 
don, and in the Jordan Valley they stretched from 
Sodom to Lasha. 

g. Edomites. Gen. 36: L9. Inhabited Mt. Seir and 
the neighborhood of Petra, as far south as the shores 
of the Gulf of Akabah. 

li. Girgashites. Gen 10:16; Deut. 7:1. Probably 
occupied the territory southwest of the Sea of Galilee. 

i. Hamathites. Gen. 10: 18. Dwellers of Hamath 
in the north. 

j. Hittites. Gen. Ch. 23 and 27:46; Num. 13:29; 
Josh. 1 : 4. They dwelt in the north, coming originally 
from the ranges of the Taurus mountains, and ex- 
tended eastward to the Euphrates. They were also in 
the south occupying the mountains of Ephraim, and 
reached as far south as Beersheba. 

k. Hivites, or " midlanders." Gen. 34:2; Josh. 
9:17. Inhabited a portion of central Palestine and 
the hill country north of Jerusalem. The term is also 
applied to inhabitants of Lebanon. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 23 

I Jebusites. Gen. 10:16; Ex. 3:8,17; Dent. 7:1, 
etc. Occupied Jerusalem and the surrounding moun- 
tains. Were in possession of part of Jerusalem in 
David's time. 

m. Karhnonites. Gen. 15:19. Occupied the cen- 
tral Syrian desert midway between the Jordan and the 
Euphrates. 

n. Kenites. Gen. 15:19; Num. 24:21. Dwelt in 
southern Judah and near the Amalekites. 

o. Kenizzites. Gen. 15:19. This tribe is known 
only by name. 

p. Midianites. Gen. 25:4. Lived in the Sinaitic 
desert, and their land extended eastwards to an un- 
known limit. 

q. Moabites. Gen 19:37. East of the Jordan and 
the Dead Sea, and later south of the river Anion. 

/■. Perizziies, or "rustics." Gen. 34:30: Josh. 
17:15. Occupied the centre of Palestine and Lower 
Galilee. 

S. Philistines. Gen. 10:14; Dent. 2:23, etc. Ex- 
terminating the Avim the Philistines occupied the 
southwest of Palestine. They were of Egyptian ori- 
gin, and were never completely conquered by the Isra- 
elites. 

/. Sinites. Gen. 10:17. South of the Arkites. 
(See above.) 

u. Zemarites. Gen. 10:18. A place inland of the 
district occupied by the Arvadites. (See above.) 

3. Inhabitants after the Conquest and during the 
Monarch}', i. e. the Israelites; with whom however 
still lived a Canaanite population. The tribes of 
Israel inhabited the territories allotted them as see 
preceding section. The following table shows the pop- 



24 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

illation of these tribal territories based upon the cen- 
sus furnished in Num. Ch. 26. This census counts 
only male adult population. With the census is given 
the area of the tribal territories in square miles. 

a. Reuben. Pop. adult males, 43,730. Sq. miles, 700 

b. Gad. 

c. ManassehJ" " 

d. Simeon. " 

e. Judah. 
/. Dan. 

g. Benjamin. " " ' 
h. Ephraim. " 
i. Manassehi " " ' 
j. Issachar. " " ( 
k, Zebulon. " 
I Asher. 
m.Naphtali. " 

Total, 601,730 10,900 

In the territory of Judah, Philistia has not been in- 
cluded (1,000 sq. miles), nor the Jeshimon Desert (400 
sq. miles), giving 2,800 sq. miles as the real total of 
the territory for Judah. 

Multiplying the total adult male population by four 
we get the approximate number of souls 2,406,920. 
At the accession of Solomon the population of Jewish 
origin numbered 1,300,000 fighting men (2 Sam. 24:9), 
which represents a total of 5,000,000 souls, or double 
the population of the time of the Conquest. The pres- 
ent population of the same extent of country is sup- 
posed not to exceed 700,000 souls. 

4. Inhabitants at the time of and after the Captivity. 

With the invasion of the Kingdom of Israel by 



40,500. 


u 


1,300 


29,280. 


( t 


2,500 


22,200. 


(C 


1,000 


75,500. 


a 


1,400 


64,400. 


t c 


500 


45,600. 


u 


300 


32,500. 


(C 


600 


23,420. 


i i 


800 


64,300. 


i i 


400 


60,500. 


i I 


300 


53,400. 


i c 


300 


45,400. 


u 


800 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 25 

Assyria, the subjection of King Iloshea by Shalman- 
eser, and the capitulation of Samaria to Sargon, the 
people of the Northern Kingdom were carried away 
captive. Foreign colonists were placed in their room; 
and these, adopting the Jewish law and conforming to 
some extent to the Jewish ritual w T ere founders of the 
nation and sect of the Samaritans. A great part of 
Palestine, nearly the whole of the Kingdom of Israel, 
now became a province of the Assyrian empire, and 
afterwards passed with it into the hands of the Baby- 
lonians. Less than a century and a half later, 
Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, took Jerusalem, 
and led the other section of the Jewish nation captive. 
Thus all Palestine lost its nationality, and was ruled 
by a provincial satrap. Under the rule of Cyrus the 
captive Jews were permitted to return to their own 
land. Ezra and Nehemiah reestablished the ancient 
worship and rebuilt the temple; but politically the 
country remained a province of the Babylonian and 
Persian empires till the time of Alexander the Great, 
when it fell under Greek rule. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
X.— Definition. 

The Physical Geography of Palestine describes the 
actual state of the surface of this country in respect to 
the three great divisions — land, sea and air, together 
with the natural history of these divisions. 



26 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

XI.— General Features. 

The first noticeable general feature of the country is 
its geographical isolation. It stands midway between 
the great empires of Egypt and Assyria, being sepa- 
rated from each by the desert — the wildernesses of 
Paran and Shur to the south, and the S3 7 rian or North 
Arabian Desert to the east. From the western world 
it was shut out by the long and almost harborless 
coast of the Mediterranean; and from northern Syrian 
by the mountain ranges of Lebanon and Hermon. 

The next general feature to be noticed is the irregu- 
larity and variety of the country. It is a land of 
mountains and hills; of deep valleys and rich plains; 
of snow-capped mountains, and the gorges of rushing 
streams; a land locked in by oceans and deserts. 

As varied as is the general surface of the Land so 
varied are its climatic conditions. Between the torrid 
heat of the Dead Sea basin and the arctic cold of the 
Lebanons and Hermon are almost all ranges of 
temperature with their characteristic features. 

In short inspiration gives, in brief, an accurate de- 
scription of the physical geography of the Land when 
it speaks of it as "a good land, a land of brooks of 
waters, of fountains and depths, springing forth in val- 
leys and hills; a land of wheat and barley, and vines 
and fig trees and pomegranates; a land of oil olives 
and honey; a land wherein thou shalt eat bread with- 
out scarceness, thou shalt not lack anything in it; a 
land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou 
mayest dig brass; a land of hills and valleys, and 
drinketh water of the rain of heaven; a land which 
the Lord thy God careth for; the eyes of the Lord th} T 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 27 

God are always upon it, from the beginning of the 
year even unto to the end of the year." Deut. 8: 7-9 
and Deut, 11:11, 12. R. V. 

The two general land features of the country are 
therefore on the one hand its mountains and hills, on 
the other its valleys and plains. The mountain or hill 
country, from the southern cities of Judah up to the 
rocks of Lebanon, was that in which the population 
was chiefly massed. The physical character of this 
part of the country precluded, for the most part, the 
grain cultivation of the plain, and induced the careful 
terracing of the hills, where the vine, the fig tree, and 
the olive were the staple products. In the early his- 
torical period of the country, the days of the patri- 
archs, those terraces had not yet been formed, but the 
forest still covered the hills. On the other hand, we 
find on the seaboard the various maritime plains of 
surpassing richness yielding in profusion their grains 
and fruits, with rich gardens and orchards round 
the cities. In these plains frost is unknown, 
drought rare, and the water supply abundant. With 
these maritime plains are to be connected the inland 
plains, notably among which is the broad plain of Jez- 
reel or Esdraelon in the district of Lower Galilee. 
Perhaps the most remarkable feature of Palestine is 
the Jordan Valley, which runs straight through the 
Land from north to south, being everywhere below the 
level of the ocean, and having a nearly uniform 
breadth of about ten miles from brow to brow of the 
abrupt cliffs on either side. The territory east of the 
Jordan forms a track of table-land having an elevation 
of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 

The chief features of the tribal territories were as 



28 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

follows: — Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, Naphtali; Ren- 
ben and Gad were mountainous districts. Simeon and 
the eastern half of Manasseh were parti} 7 desert dis- 
tricts. The westerD half of Manasseh was a wooded 
mountain district. Dan, Issachar, Zebulon and Asher 
were chiefly districts of rich plains. 

XII.— Land Surface. 

Giving the principal mountains, valle3 7 s, plains, 
deserts, etc., with data relative to them. 
1. Mountains. Location, elevation, etc. 

a. Abarim ; i.e. fcC Mountains beyond Jordan "; the 
range of Nebo; run north and south; in Rueben and 
Gad; seeNebo; Deut, 32:49. 

b. Adummim ; the " going up of"; at north border 
of Judah; Josh. 15:7. 

c. Akrabbim ; "ascent of"; a hill or chain of hills 
just south of the Dead Sea; Josh. 15:3; Num. 34:4; 
off the southeastern border of Judah. 

d. Amana ; near Hermon, southern part of the 
Anti-Lebonon range; Song of Songs 4: 8. 

e. Baal Hamon ; in Song of Songs 8:11 perhaps 
same as Amana. 

/. Baal Hermon ; in Judg. 3:3; same as Hermon, 
which see. 

g. B 'ether ; in Song of Songs 2: 17; possibly hills 
round Battir, west of Bethlehem in Judah. 

h. Carmel ; in Manasseh or Asher; Josh. 19:26; 
is twelve miles long, and 1,740 feet above the sea. 

i. Ebal ; in the northern part of Ephraim; 3,076 
feet; Deut. 11:29. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 29 

j. Gerizim ; in the northern part of Ephraim; 2,848 
feet; opposite Ebal; Dent. 11:29. 

k. Gilboct ; on the east of the Plain of Jezreel or 
Esdraelon ; 1,500 feet above the sea; in Issachar ; 1 Sam. 
31:1; 2 Sam. 1:21. 

/. Grilead (1) ; east of Jordan; territory of Gad; 
Gen. 31:21. 

Gilead (2) ; a portion of Gilboa; see above; Judg. 
7: 3. 

m. Hermon; northern boundary of Palestine; 9,376 
feet; ealled also Baal Heimon, Sirion, Shenir and Sion; 
Deut. 3:8, etc. 

n. Hezron ; southern border of Judah (Simeon); 
Josh. 15: 3. 

o. " Hill of Bashan "; eastern boundary of the Holy 
Land; about 5,600 feet; Psa. 68:15. 

p. Hot ; in Arabia Petnea and forming part of the 
mountain chain of Seir; 2,360 feet; Num. 33:37-41. 

q. Horeb ; = Sinai, which see. 

r. Lebanon j the well known chain of mountains on 
the north, 8,500 feet at highest point, and the Anti- 
Lebanon chain 8,700 feet. 

s. Moriahj according to the Samaritans = Gerizim; 
according to others at Jerusalem; Gen. Ch. 22; 2 
Chron. 3:1. 

t. Nebo ; east of Jordan, land of Moab, over against 
Jericho, a summit of the Abarim range; Dent. 
32: 49, etc. ; 4,000 feet above the plain. 

u. Olives ; east of Jerusalem ; Zech. 14:4. 

v. Pisgah ; apparently about the same as Nebo, 
which see; Deut. 34: 1. 

w. Salmon or Zalmon ; mountain south of Mount 
Gerizim: Judg. 9:48; Psa. 68:14. 



30 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

x. Seir (1); the mountains round Petra, south of 
Dead Sea; Gen. 14: 6. 

Seir (2) ; mountain on borders of Judah; Josh. 15:10. 

y. Shenir and Senir ; = Hermon, which see; Deut. 
3:9. 

z. Sinai; now called Jebel Musa, Sinaitic peninsula; 
highest point of the chain 8,537 feet above the sea; 
Ex. Oh. 19, etc. 

aa. Sion and Zion ; applied to the Upper City of 
Jerusalem, and to the southern hill of Jerusalem, and 
to the whole site of Jerusalem; Psa. 133: 3, etc. 

bb. Sirion ; = Hermon, which see; Deut. 3: 9. 

cc. Tabor ; on the northeast of the Plain of Esdrae- 
lon; 1,850 feet above the sea; Josh. 19: 22. 

eld. Zalmon ; see Salmon w. 

ee. Zion ; see Sion aa. 

2. Plains and Deserts. Location, extent, etc. 

a. Abel Shittim and Shittim ; i. e. "the meadow" 
or " plain of acacias " ; in the land and plains of Moab ; 
foot of Xebo; Num. 33:49; 25: 1. 

b. Argob ; a desert district in Bashan, or eastern 
half of Manasseh ; a great rugged field of basalt hav- 
ing an area of 500 square miles; Deut. 3: 14. 

c. Cicear ; a general term applied to a certain plain 
or plains, and having also the sense of a valley, or bet- 
ter of a plain in a valley, so we read of "the plain 
(Cicear) of the Valley of the Jordan," and "the plains 
(Cicear) of the Jordan," and the Cities of the Plain 
were cities of Cicear, from which it appears that the 
Cicear included not only the plain of Jericho but ex- 
tended at least as far north as the region of Succoth, 
i. e. north of the river Jabbok in central Gad, and so 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 31 

it embraced part of the Jordan Valley. Gen. 13:10, 
11, 12, etc. See § 8, 1, h. 

(/. Cities of the Plain ; see what immediately pre- 
cedes in c. 

e. Esdraelon ; plain of, see Jezreel. 

/. Jericho; plain of ; also called "the plain of the 
valley of Jericho"; the plain about Jericho, forming 
the southern part of the Ciccar, which see abov T e, c; 
Dent. 34:3. 

g. Jeshimon ; the desert west of the Dead Sea, be- 
tween that and the Hebron mountains, in Judah ; 
called in Math. 3:1, the " Wilderness of Judea"; 
Num. 21:20; 1 Sam. 23:19. 

h. Jezreel; plain of, or Esdraelon; the great, rich 
plain of basaltic loam in Issachar; measures fourteen 
miles north and south by nine miles east and west; 
250 feet above the sea; the historic battle plain of 
Palestine; 1 Sam. 29:1-11. 

i. Jordon ; plains of, see Ciccar above. 

j. Megiddo ; plain of, adjoining or part of the 
great plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon, which see, h. 

k. Midbar ; desert; see § 8, 1, o. Southern Judah. 

/. Mizpeh; land or plain of, west of Hermon ; Josh. 
11:3. 

///. Pa ran ; desert of; the great wilderness of the 
Sinaitic Peninsula, having the desert of Shur on the 
west, and the desert of Zin or Sin to the east; Num. 
10:12, etc. 

n. PhiUstia; plain of ; southern part of the great 
Maritime Plain south of Carmel; western Judah. 

o. Shephelah ; the plain or the low hill districts of 
Judah and Simeon, the northern portion of which was 
Sharon. 



32 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

p. Sharon; plain of; the broad, rich tract of land 
in the southwest of Palestine, tying between the moun- 
tains of the central part and the Mediterranean, and 
being the northern continuation of the Shephelah; 1 
Chron. 27:29; Song of Songs 2:1. There seems to 
have been two other plains of Sharon, one in Galilee 
and a transjordanic one. 

q. Shur ; desert of; the desert northwest of the 
Wilderness of Paran, and extending along the Medi- 
terranean between Palestine and Egypt; Gen. 16:7, 
etc. 

r. Sin or Zin; desert of; east of desert of Paran, 
from south of Dead Sea to Gulf of Akabah, and ap- 
pears to answer to the present basin of the Arabah: 
Num. 33:11, etc. 

s. Zin ; see immediately above, r. 

3. Valleys. Location, etc. 

a. Achor ; valley of, between Jericho and Jordan ; 
Josh. 7 : 24. 

b. Arabah ; the valley or depression of the Jordan 
especially that part of it extending from the southern 
point of the Dead Sea southward to the Gulf of Aka- 
bah; Deut. 1:1, etc. 

c. Aijalon or Ajalon : valley in Dan; Josh. 10:12. 

d. Berachah ; a valley in the direction of Tekoa, 
south of Bethlehem; 2 Chron. 20; 26. 

e. Dead Bodies ; valley of; vicinity of Jerusalem; 
Jer. 31 : 40. 

/'. Decision ; a name poetically given to the Valley 
of Jehoshaphat, q. v. ; Joel 3: 2, 12, 14. 

g. Elah ; valley in Dan; 1 Sam. 17:2. 

h. Hinnom ; the valley bounding the site of Jeru- 
salem on the south; Josh. 18: 16, etc. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 33 

i. Jehoshaphat ; the valley between Jerusalem and 
the Mount of Olives; Joel 3 : 2. 

j. Jezreel ; runs from the plain of Jezreel or Esdrae- 
lon east; Josh. 17: 16. 

k. Jordan ; the valley through which the river Jor- 
dan flows, and at different places called by different 
names, as e. g. Ciccar; 2 Chron. 4:17. 

/. Kedron ; valley and brook ; west of Olivet, east 
of Jerusalem ; taken to be about the same as the Val- 
ley of Jehoshaphat; 1 Ki. 2: 37. 

m. Shaveh ; vale of, called also Kings Vale ; not 
certain; vicinity of Jerusalem ; Gen. 14:17. 

n. Shechem ; the vale between the mountains Ebal 
and Gerizim; Gen. 12:6. 

o. Siddim ; vale of , the Dead Sea basin ; Gen. 14:3. 

p. Sorek; a Philistine valley ; Judg. 16:4. 

q. Succoth ; a portion of the Jordan Valley border- 
ing on Gad; Psa. 108:7. 

r. Rephaim ; vale of ; extending from near Jerusa- 
lem towards Bethlehem; Josh. 15:8. 

Zeboim ; a valley mentioned as being " towards the 
wilderness " east of Michmash, in Benjamin, or north 
of Jericho; 1 Sam. 13: 18. 

XIII. -Water Surface. 

The seas, lakes, rivers, etc. of Palestine are chiefly 
as follows : 

a. Abana; a river rising north of Hermon and flow- 
ing to Damascus; 2 Ki. 5: 12. 

b. Arnon; river, east of Dead Sea, southern border 
of territory of Reuben ; Deut. 2 : 24. 

c. Ashdoth Pisyah ; i. e, streains of Pisgah ; appar- 

[3] 



34 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

ently the springs now called Ayun Musa under Mt. 
Nebo; Deut. 3:17. 

d. Beer Ldhai Boi ; well; between Bered and Ka- 
desh, south of Beersheba in Simeon; Gen. 16: 14. 

e. Besor ; brook; near the Wilderness of Shur; 
1 Sam. 30:9. 

/. Cliinneretlx ; i. e. Sea of Galilee; Num. 34:11; 
extreme length twelve and one-half miles, maximum 
width eight miles. 

g. Dead Sea; called in the Old Testament the Salt 
Sea, Gen. 14: 3 ; the Sea of the Arabali or Blain, Deut. 
3:17; and the Eastern Sea, Joel 2:20; the sea is 
about forty-six miles in length, with an average width 
of ten miles; the depression of the sea is 1,290 feet 
below the Mediterranean, or the lowest depression in 
the earth's surface; there is a difference in the level of 
several feet as between summer and winter; receives 
the water of the Jordan and its affluents, and without 
any visible outlet, maintains its level by excessive 
evaporation ; the water contains twenty-six per cent, 
of solid matter, of which half is common salt, and a 
large proportion of chloride of magnesium. 

li. En-gedi ; spring, near the present ruin of that 
name on west shore of Dead Sea, and the Bay of 
En-gedi on west side of same sea; Josh. 15: 62. 

i. En-rogel ; i. e. "the fullers spring"; a spring 
that formed one of the landmarks on the boundary 
line between Judah and Benjamin; just outside Jeru- 
salem; 1 Ki. 1 : 9. 

j. Gilion ; spring, fountain or pool; just outside 
Jerusalem; at the east end of the aqueduct which has 
the Pool of Siloam at its west end ; 1 Ki. 1 : 33, 38. 

k. Harod ; a spring or fountain not far from Jezreel 
andMt. Gilboa; Judg. 7:1. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 35 

/. Jabboik ; river east of the Jordan in central Gad, 
descends from Mt. Gilead, flows westward into the 
Jordan; Dent. 3:16, etc. 

in. Heshbon ; pools of, northeastern part of Reuben; 
Song of Songs 7 : 4. 

n. Jordan; river; formed by the junction of three 
streams; the highest source is on Hermon, the second 
near the supposed site of Dan (Gen. 14: 14), the third 
source in the grotto at Banias (the ancient Csesarea- 
Philippi) ; flows from north to south through the length 
of the Land, passing through the Waters of Merom, 
the Sea of Galilee, and empties in the Dead Sea; from 
its rise on Hermon to Dead Sea about 100 miles, but 
the river's course traverses at least 200 miles, and 
throughout nearly its entire course is below the level 
of the sea; Gen. 13:10; Josh. 4:1, etc. 

o. Kanah ; brook; one of the main drains of the 
mountains immediately south of Gerizim ; flows west- 
ward forming the north border of Ephraim and Dan, 
and empties in the Mediterranean; Josh. 17:9. 

p. Keclron or Kidron ; applied to the brook or win- 
ter torrent which flows through the Vallej" of Jehosha- 
phat on the east side of Jerusalem; 2 Sam. 15:23, 30. 

q. Kislion ; river; drains the Esdraelon plain, flows 
northwest beneath the ridge of Carmel, empties into 
the Mediterranean ; Judg. 4:7. 

r. Leontes ; river; rises near Baalbek, flows south- 
west and west, empties into the Mediterranean five 
miles north of Tyre; total length eighty miles. 

s. Mediterranean Sea ; called in the Old Testament 
"the Great Sea" (Num. 34:6), " the Sea " (Josh. 19: 
36), "the Sea of the Philistines" (Ex. 23:31), and 
" the hinder," that is, Western "Sea" (Deut, 12:24) 



36 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

in distinction from the forward, that is, Eastern Sea, 
viz. the Dead Sea; bounds Palestine on the west. 

t. Merom; waters of; now called Lake Ilulek ; four 
miles long; north of the Sea of Galilee; Jordan runs 
through it; Josh. 11:5. 

u. Nephtoah; waters of ; southwest of Bethlehem on 
boundary of Benjamin and Judah; Josh. 15: 9. 

v. Nimrim; waters of; in the southern part of the 
Jordan Valley; Isa. 15: 6. 

tv. Pharpar ; river; has its main source on Hermon, 
flows across the whole plain of Damascus a short dis- 
tance south of the city; 2 Ki. 5:12. 

x. River of Egypt; in several places generally re- 
fers not to the Nile but to the valley and winter torrent 
now called Wady-al-Arish midway between southern 
border of Palestine and Egypt in Desert of Shur; 
Num. 34:5. 

y. Shihor ; i. e. the River Nile of Egypt, q. v.; 
Josh. 13:3. 

z. Siloah and Siloam ; pool, spring, stream; south- 
ern part of the city of Jerusalem; Neh. 3 : 15. 

XIV.— Geology. 

The Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges consist 
mainly of hard crystalline limestone, with an over- 
laying formation of soft white chalk, whence the 
mountain obtained its name Lebanon, or "milk 
white." The same hard crystalline limestone forms 
the bulk of the Hermon block; while the overlaying 
chalk is visible on the Anti-Lebanon immediately to 
the north. 

The same formations occur throughout Palestine 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 3? 

west of Jordan; but in the centre of the country, and 
on the higher hills of Upper Galilee traces of nummu- 
litic limestone overlie the chalk. About half of the 
height of Mt. Gerizim is formed by this limestone, 
which is hard, dark, and full of nummulites. 

South of Hermon the submarine formations are dis- 
turbed by various volcanic outbreaks, the principal 
centre of which is found in the Argob district, east of 
Jordan, in Bashan, where there is a basalt field, hav- 
ing an area of about 500 square miles. The plateau 
of southwest Bashan, east of Upper Galilee, is also 
broken by volcanic cones and craters ; while the shores 
of the Sea of Galilee, and the plateaus and plains west 
and southwest of the lake are covered with lava. 
These eruptions have been dated as belonging to the 
early Tertiary period, and the cretaceous formations of 
Galilee have been all more or less affected by them. 

Throughout Palestine proper the chalky formations 
occur, with the hard underlying limestone often ap- 
pearing denuded on the surface. South of Hebron the 
lower bed disappears, and the chalk covers the whole 
country. 

An older formation, the Nubian sandstone, under- 
lies the hard Neocomian limestone. It appears in 
Lebanon, and on the east side of the Jordan Valley, 
opposite Shechem, and it forms Mt. Hor and hills 
round Petra. It extends southwest across the Arabah, 
or valley between the Dead Sea and Red Sea, and 
appears also in the neighborhood of Sinai. Igneous 
formations lie beneath it near Petra; and the chains of 
Sinai and of the Serbal are formed of different varieties 
of granitic rock. 

The Nubian sandstone, though visible all along the 



38 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

east side of the Dead Sea, and in the Arabah, is never 
seen west of the Jordan; and hence it appears most 
probable that the Jordan Valley is formed by an im- 
mense fault running north and south from the foot of 
Hermon. Other evidences of this exist. 

From the geological history of the Jordan Valley, 
and of the Dead Sea, it is clear that the formation of 
the Dead Sea did not take place within historic times. 
In the Cretaceous period it appears quite certain that 
the Jordan Valley extended to the Red Sea; but 
shortly after that epoch disturbances, accompanied by 
volcanic eruptions took place. The watershed of the 
Arabah was then raised nearly 800 feet above the sea; 
and the Jordan Valley, formed by a longitudinal fault, 
sank to the depth of nearly 1,300 feet below the Medi- 
terranean. A chain of at least four inland lakes was 
thus formed, the shores and beds of which may still be 
traced. As the evaporation increased, these lakes 
appear to have dried up gradually, leaving raised 
beaches still existing; so that they are at the present 
day represented only by the small sheets of water 
known as the Lake of Merom, the Sea of Galilee, and 
the Dead Sea. 

From the scientific history of the valley, it is evident 
that the theory which ascribes the formation of the 
Dead Sea to the time of the overthrow of the Cities of 
the Plain, is false, as well as not supported by the 
words of Scripture ; and the Cities of the Plain were not 
built on any part of the present bed of the Dead Sea. 

XV. —Meteorology. 

The Meteorology of Palestine is a description of the 
atmospheric phenomena of that country in relation to 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 39 

weather and climate, as, e. g. seasons, temperature, 
rains, winds, etc. 

1. Temperature. 

From the physical character and perpetually chang- 
ing altitudes of the country as set forth in the preced- 
ing sections, it might be inferred that there would be 
found great variations in climate. Probably there is 
no country in the world of the same extent that shows 
such a great variety in temperature as Palestine. This 
is indicated also by the vegetation. On the top of 
Ilermon we are in the region of perpetual snow. On 
the hills of Bashan and Upper Galilee the oak and pine 
flourish. On the hills of Judea and Samaria the vine 
and fig tree thrive. On the maritime plains the palm 
and banana are at home. In the basin of the Dead 
Sea we find tropical heat and tropical vegetation. 

The greatest extremes of temperature are experi- 
enced in the southern deserts. In winter the mercury 
falls considerably below the freezing point while in 
summer the thermometer ranges to 90°. 

At Jerusalem the climate is mild, frost rare. The 
coldest month is January, the hottest July. The mean 
temperature for January varies from 47° to 49°. The 
mean temperature for July is about 79°. 

In Nazareth and Nablous (the ancient Shechem) the 
winter temperature is considerably higher than at 
Jerusalem. The summer heat in these places is some- 
what modified by the cool breezes from the Lebanon. 

Snow rarely falls in the above mentioned places. 
When it does it remains only a few hours at Jerusa- 
lem, while it may remain a few days in Galilee before 
entirely disappearing. 

In the maritime plains the temperature is very much 



40 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

higher than in the highlands, and the crops are about 
a month in advance of those near Jerusalem. This is 
especially true of Sharon and the lowlying coast plains 
where frost and snow are unknown. 

The climate of the northern frontier, Hermon and 
Lebanon, varies according to elevation, from the genial 
warmth of the lower valleys to the almost arctic sever- 
ity of the mountain tops, covered with all but per- 
petual snows, and attaining a height of about 10,000 
feet above sea level. 

More tropical than any other part of the country is 
the climate of the Jordan Valley. On the shores of 
the Sea of Galilee, which is 650 feet below sea level, 
this change of temperature is unmistakably seen, the 
depression of the valley causing a sudden change from 
the climate and products of the Galilean hills around. 

Descending the Jordan Valley, the climate steadily 
increases in temperature, till the maximum is reached 
on the shores of the Dead Sea, where, during January, 
the mean temperature of the day is about 6?°, with a 
fall during the night. In April the thermometer regis- 
ters about 105° in the shade, while in mid-summer the 
heat is most intense, 

2. Seasons. 

The climate of Palestine is both naturally and scrip- 
turally divided into two seasons, summer and winter. 
These seasons succeed each other with scarcely any 
intermediate gradations. The summer commences 
with the harvest in April, and continues until the 
" former rain" in November. The remaining months 
of the year constitute the winter. Many Scripture 
passages speak of the " early rain " or "former rain," 
i. e. the rains of autumn and winter, and the " latter 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 41 

rain," or showers of spring. Note Dent. 11:14; Jer. 
5:24; Hos. 6:3; Joel 2: 23. A slight difference in 
different parts of the country is observed as to when 
"seed time" and "harvest" begin, depending upon 
the altitude. 

According to the rabbinical idea as set forth in the 
Talmud the seasons are six in number, viz.: 

a. Seed-time: from October to December. 

b. Winter: from December to Februaiy. 

c. Cold : from February to April. 
(7. Harvest : from April to June. 
e. Heat : from June to August. 

/. Summer: from August to October. 

This division is apparently based upon Gen. 8:22. 
The divisions however are arbitrary. 

3. Rain. 

The Old Testament employs two generic words for 
rain, viz., matar = "rain," and geshem = "a pour- 
ing rain." The Old Testament also makes the twofold 
distinction of yoreh = " the former rain," and malkosh 
= " the latter rain." The former rain falls from the 
latter part of October till in the first part of December. 
The latter rain falls in March and April. (See what 
precedes in this section under Seasons.) The former 
rain never failed, excepting at times of special visita- 
tion from the Lord; 1 Ki. 17:1. The latter rain was 
more uncertain, and has ever been looked for with 
anxiety by the inhabitants of the country, for on its 
copiousness depend the hopes of the harvest. Note 
Job 29: 23; Prov. 10:15; Jer. 3:3; Zech. 10:1. The 
occurrence of rain after the corn is ripe is scarcelj 7 
known, and thus we find it suggested as an image of 
what is most incongruous. Prov. 26: 1. 



42 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

The rainfall of Palestine is very great, and there is 
no sufficient ground to support the theory that it has 
diminished in modern times. The rainfall of Jerusa- 
lem varies from eighty-five to forty-four inches. The 
greatest rainfall registered in Jerusalem for the three 
months, December, January, February, is 72.4 inches. 

The rainfall of the Jordan Valley is less than that of 
the coasts or the highlands east and west of it. 

Thunder is not uncommon in winter, but is unknown 
in summer. Hence the awe with which the Israelites 
heard the thunder invoked by Samuel during wheat 
harvest, i. e. May. See 1 Sam. 12: 16-19. 

4. Winds. 

The winds in Palestine are remarkably regular, both 
in their seasons and their effects. The north and south 
winds prevail for a greater length of time and with 
more beneficial effects than the east and west winds. 

The east and west winds were rather injurious in 
their effects. The east wind was especially withering, 
tempestuous, violent. Ezk. 17:10; Hos. 13:15; Psa. 
48:7; Isa. 27:8. 

The north wind was strong and refreshing, cool and 
strengthening. The south wind was a warm, moist 
breeze. Both alike were blessed in their effects, tend- 
ing to the growth and strength of all life. Song of 
Songs 4: 16. 

In the Jordan Valley the wind blows in the winter 
down the valle} 7 from the north, and in summer up the 
valle3 7 from the south, uniformly. 

XVI.— Botany. 

The botanical and floral illustrations and allusions 
of the Bible are numerous, and for the most part con- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 43 

fined to the vegetable products of three countries, viz. 
Palestine, Egypt and the Arabian Desert. Those of 
Palestine alone will be enumerated here. 

Out of Palestine's strangely varied climate springs a 
corresponding complexity in the vegetable and animal 
life of the country. Lebanon's successive zones of 
vegetation produce the pine, cypress, juniper, green 
oaks, cedar, ash, box, poplar, oleander, mulberry, 
oranges, apricots, almonds, palm, olive, pomegranate, 
vine, fig, terraced slopes for grain, etc. In the lofty 
table-lands beyond Jordan, pine forests cover the tops 
of the highest hills, while lower down woods of ever- 
green oak still flourish in Gilead and Bashan, and 
mingled with these is the rich foliage of the myrtle, 
arbutus, locust tree, etc. In the territories of Moab 
and Aramon the terebinth grows up out of rich pas- 
tures. In Upper Galilee, besides the oak woods, a 
dense undergrowth of mastic, hawthorne and spurge- 
laurel overspreads the hills. In Lower Galilee corn, 
cotton, and almost everj^ species of vegetable grow 
luxuriantly. Nazareth has still its palms and cypresses, 
its fig-trees and gardens. The Vale of Shechem, the 
richest in the whole land, and watered by eighty 
springs, produces in abundance figs, walnuts, mulber- 
ries, oranges, lemons, olives, pomegranates, vines, etc. 
Judea has its olive yards, vineyards, almonds, oranges, 
etc. The northern portion of the Waters of Merom is 
covered with an immense tract of floating thickets of 
papyrus. The Sea of Galilee is at times set in a frame 
of oleanders; the Jordan is lined with a thick jungle 
of reeds, tamarisks, etc. ; balsam, cypress and an- 
ciently palm trees flourished in the vicinity of the 
Dead Sea. The Philistine plain is rich in gardens and 



44 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

orchards. In short, between Beersheba and Hermon 
not less than 1,000 species of plants have been recorded 
as natives of Palestine, and the whole number of 
species probably reaches 2,000. 

The Old Testament employs the following terms to 
denote collective vegetation: 

a. Yaar. It is generally translated "forest" or 
"wood." The term is applied to any considerable 
assemblage of trees, whether timber or fruit-bearing, 
and irrespective of dimensions. 1 Ki. 7:2; Isa. 37: 
24; Ec. 2:6, etc. 

b. Koresh. Is also translated " wood," " forest," 
etc. According to usage a better rendering would be 
a thick undergrowth or underwood. 1 Sam, 23 : 15, 16 ; 
Isa. 17:9, etc. 

c. Scheie and Sebak. Is rendered " thicket," which 
is sufficiently accurate, denoting as it does a tangled 
thicket or jungle. 

d. Eshel. Is translated in the Authorized Version 
" grove," but is more correctly rendered in the Revised 
Version by "tamarisk," according to the Arabic. Gen. 
21 : 33, etc. 

e. Asherdh. Is also translated " grove" by the A. 
V. while the R. V. transliterates the word, thus sing. 
Asherah, pi. Asherim. It is applied to a constructed 
wooden object of idolatrous worship. It is strictly a 
wooden obelisk and comes down from the obelisk and 
sun worship of the ancient Egyptians. The Muham- 
madan Mulid en-Nebbi, or celebration of the birth of 
the Prophet, still preserves a remnant of this ancient 
worship in the festivities connected with what is called 
essaree, in which we see the Hebrew name also pre- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 45 

served. See Lane's Modern Egyptians, Vol. II. p. 166. 
Ex. 34:13; 1 Ki. 14:15, etc. 

In cataloguing what is included under the Botany of 
the Old Testament we begin with 

1.— Trees and Shrubs. 

ALGUM (2 Chron. 2: 8) and ALMUG (in 1 Ki. 10: 11, 
L2). In A. V. and R. V. it is transliterated " algum 
trees." Max Miiller and others are wrong when they 
refer it to sandalwood. The Algum tree is indigenous 
to Arabia, still grows in Arabia, is still called Algum 
b} 7 the Arabians, and is still used by the Arabians in 
the manufacture of musical instruments, etc. precisely 
as in 1 Ki. 10:11, 12. 

Almond. Jer. 1:11. Native of Palestine, and 
earliest tree to blossom. Perhaps this latter fact gives 
it its Hebrew name which comes from a verb mean- 
ing to hasten. Note Eccles. 12: 5 in this connection. 
Aaron's rod was from the almond tree. Num. 17:8. 
Almond blossoms formed the pattern of the "bowls" 
or " cups" of the golden candlestick of the tabernacle. 
Ex. 25: 33. The Hebrew luz rendered "Hazel" in the 
A. V. should be almond; so R. V. 

Aloes; Lign- Aloes. Psa. 45:8. The Hebrew 
word is Ahalim and Ahaloth, used only in the plural, 
and in only four passages. The rendering "aloes" or 
"lign-aloes" is wrong, and shown to be wrong by the 
form and usages of the word in those passages and 
their context where the word occurs, e. g. Psa. 45 : 8. 
The Arabic root-word corresponds precisely with the 
Hebrew, both ahal. According to the Arabic then, and 
according to every usage of the word in the Bible the 
term can only refer to one of the species of Theban or 



46 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

fan palm remarkable for its excellent appearance and 
delightful fragrance. What is stated about the Ahalim 
in the Bible is altogether against aloes and altogether 
in favor of this fragrant palm. So in Psa. 45:8 in- 
stead of reading "aloes, and cassia," we should read 
"and cuttings of the fragrant palm"; and as the 
Hebrew grammatical construction further shows. See 
the Author's Critical Note in Presbyterian Review, 
July, 1885. 

Apple. Joel 1 : 12, etc. Mentioned six times in the 
Old Testament, and of these four in the Song of Songs. 
It is doubtful what tree is intended. There are various 
claims. The root (tafah not nafali) meaning is to be 
of a sweet odor in Hebrew and Arabic. The apple is 
indigenous to Arabia, is very fragrant, and hence 
so called. In one passage of The Song and perhaps 
two the word should be rendered sweet odors and not 
apples, i. e. 2:5; 7:8. 

Ash. Hebrew oren, only in Isa. 44:14. A. V. 
"ash," R. V. "fir tree." Arabic 'Aren a tree re- 
sembling the plane or box thorn. 

Balm; Balsam. Grows in the region of Jericho, in 
Gilead and in Arabia and Nubia. A small evergreen 
tree. The balsam obtained from the bark by incision. 
Used medicinally and for its fragrant scent. Jer. 8 : 
22; Gen. 43:11. 

Bay Tree. Psa. 37:35. See Revised Version. 

Box. Isa. 61 : 19. And see R. V. of Ezek. 27 : 6. 

Burning Bush in Ex. 3 : 2-4 and Deut. 33 : 16. Gen- 
erally taken as referring to the Egyptian and Arabian 
sunt or Acacia Nilotlca. The Hebrew and Arabic 
word is seneh, the root meaning of which word is to 
gleam brightly, to shine. The Arabian shrub or small 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 47 

tree so called does shine, while its fruit when dried and 
put in motion by the wind emits a musical sound. 

Camphire. Song of Songs 1: 14; 4: 13. Should be 
rendered Henna as in R. V. It is the Lawsonia in- 
(ii)i is of botanists, and the Henna shrub of Egypt, 
Arabia, etc. Found on the shores of the Dead Sea at 
Engedi. A shrub eight or ten feet high, pale green 
foliage, clusters of white and yellow blossoms of rich 
strong perfume. A bunch of the blossoms is still worn 
by eastern women at night on their bosoms. Song of 
Songs 1 : 14. 

Caper. See Hyssop. 

Cassia. In Ex. 30:24. Supposed to be an inferior 
cinnamou. 

Cassia. In Psa. 45 : 8. See under Aloes above. 

Cedar. Psa, 104:16. The well-known Cedar of 
Lebanon. Frequently mentioned. Used also in many 
Scripture passages as a type of grandeur, might, pros- 
perity, etc. Noted also for fragrance. Song of Songs 
4:11. 

Chestnut. Gen. 30:37; Ez. 31:8. Should be 
Plane tree; so R. V. 

Cinnamon. Ex. 30:23. An exotic. Grows to the 
height of thirty feet. One of the principal spices in 
the directions given for compounding the "anointing 
oil " of the sanctuary. 

Citron. Lev. 23 : 40. See Revised Version. 

Cypress. Isa. 44:14. The species is doubtful. 
R. V. "holm tree." 

Ebony. Ezek. 27:15. Brought into Palestine by 
the merchants of Declan, eastern Arabians. 

Elm. Hos. 4:13. Should be terebinth. So R. V. 

Fig. Gen. 3:7; Deut. 8:8, etc. Not the sycamore. 



48 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

One of the rich characteristic products of Canaan; 
Num. 13: '23. The failure of a divine judgment; Psa. 
105:33. Type of peace, securitj 7 , prosperity; 1 Ki. 4: 
25; Isa. 36:16. Under favorable conditions the fig- 
tree bears as many as three crops of fruit in the year, 
the first being esteemed a delicacy; Isa. 28: 4, R. V. 
Used medicinally; 2 Ki. 20:7. 

Fir. Isa. 60:13. The Hebrew word is Berosh. 
The word seems to comprehend all the coniferous trees 
of Palestine excepting the cedar and juniper. That is 
it includes the four species of Pine, and the Cypress. 
The species are Pinus Maritima, P. Halepensis, P. 
Carica, etc. 

Frankincense. Song of Songs 3:6; 4:14; Isa. 
60 : 6. The produce of a tree known as the Bosivellia 
thurifera. A light yellow gum. One of the four aro- 
matic ingredients named as components of the holy 
incense. Ex. 30:34, 35. 

Gopher Wood. Gen. 6:14. Uncertain. Accord- 
ing to the Arabic a tree furnishing a wide board and 
of a resinous nature. 

Hazel. Gen. 30:37. See Almond. 

Heath. Jer, 17:6-8. The Hebrew is Arar. The 
Arabic is precisety the same. The Arabic is the name 
of the juniper growing in some parts of the Arabian 
desert. Its wood is used by the Arabs for kindling 
and fire, while its fruit, first green then white becomes 
finally black as charcoal. Hence note the contrast 
between verses 6 and 8 in the 17th of Jeremiah. 

Hemlock. Hos. 10:4. The Hebrew word Bosh 
rendered both "gall" and "hemlock" is supposed to 
refer to the Poppy except when it denotes the poison 
or venom of serpents. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. L9 

Juniper. 1 Ki. 19:4. Not to be confounded with 
any species of juniper. It is a species of Broom, a 
leguminous or pod-bearing" plant, growing to a height 
of eight or ten feet, still called by the Arabs retern, 
similar to the Hebrew. Arabs still avail themselves of 
its shelter, 1 Ki. 19:4, 5; while its coals still have a 
proverbial fierceness, Psa. 120:4. The root is bitter 
and nauseous, Job 30 : 4. 

Mulberry. 2 Sam. 5 : 24. Doubtful what tree is 
intended. Referred by some to a species of the Poplar. 

Myrrh. Psa. 45:8. It is the gum of a species of 
Balsamodendron. The tree is low and indigenous to 
Arabia. Myrrh is mentioned once as an ingredient in 
the " anointing oil" of the Tabernacle, Ex. 30: 23. In 
Gen. 37 : 25 and 43 : ] 1 the Hebrew word lot translated 
"myrrh" should be translated ladanum. (See under 
next number.) 

Myrtle. Isa. 55:13. In Isaiah's glowing predic- 
tions of future prosperity. The returned Jews under 
Xehemiah constructed from it booths at the Feast of 
Tabernacles. The Hebrew word is hadas. Its femin- 
ine form Hadassah was the name of Mordecai's cousin, 
better known to us under her Persian title of Esther. 

X its. There are two Hebrew words. Egoz, which 
refers to the Walnut ; Song of Songs 6: 11. The other 
Botnim is the Pistachio nut ; Gen. 43: 11. 

Oak. Gen. 35:4, etc. No less than six Hebrew 
words all derived from the same root are rendered 
" oak " in our version. One of these elali is properly 
the Terebinth or Teil tree, q. v. Besides evergreen 
oaks and deciduous oaks, there are no less than nine 
species of the oak in Palestine, three species being 
common. 
[4] 



50 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Oil Tree. Isa. 41:19. Oil tree is the exact ren- 
dering of the Hebrew. Not the Olive which has its 
own name, but the Oleaster, a small tree common in 
all parts of Palestine except the Jordan Yallej 7 . 

Olive. Gen. 8:11, etc. The well-known tree. 
Prominent among the blessings of the Land of Prom- 
ise. Dent. 8:7, 8. Emblem of blessing. Psa. 52 : 8. 
Mark of divine anger when it casts its fruit. Deut. 
28 : 40. With the Prophets a type of religious privi- 
lege, beauty, luxuriance, strength. Jer. 11:16; Hos. 
14 : 6. It was the rich blessing of Asher. Deut. 33 : 24. 
Such is the territory once occupied by Asher still, i. e. 
the Phoenician Plain. The oil used for the anointing 
of priests, kings, prophets. Used with the offerings in 
sacrifice. Used medicinally. Used for food, etc. The 
wood supplied the cherubim, the doors, and the posts 
for the temple of Solomon. 1 Ki. 6: 23, 31, 33. 

Palm Tree, i. e. the Date Palm. Song of Songs 
7:7, etc. Hebrew tamar, Arabic tumv. Frequently 
mentioned, beside giving names to persons and places, 
and being a title to Jericho, " the city of palm trees." 
The most beautiful and most useful of all trees; Ps. 
92 : 12. Among the most precious of fruit-bearing trees ; 
Joel 1 : 12. The palm leaf was first used, ecclesiastical^, 
at the annual Feast of Tabernacles. Its beauty ren- 
dered it a favorite object of artistic design ; so it ap- 
pears in Solomon's temple, and among the ornaments 
of the mystic edifice seen in vision by the prophet 
Ezekiel 40:26, 37. 

Pine. Isa. 41:19. And in Neh. 8:15 instead of 
" pine branches " read Oleaster, same as above. The 
pine of Isaiah is uncertain, perhaps the plane. 

Pomegranate. Deut. 8:8. A small tree or shrub 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 51 

eight or ten feet high. Blossom bell-shaped; fruit 
large ; within the rind the edible pink seeds divided in 
sections b} r a membrane from the rind. A favorite 
fruit in Egypt before the Exodus, and murmured for 
by the Israelites in the wilderness; Num. 20:5. The 
robe of the Jewish high priest had an embroidery of 
"pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, 
round about the hem thereof"; and the same device 
appears again on the carved work of the pillars for the 
porch of the first Temple. It was included in the 
promise of fruit-bearing trees to the Israelites about to 
enter the Land. It gave its name to a number of 
towns and villages, among them Gath-rimmon one of 
the Levitical cities : (rimmon being the name for this 
fruit in Hebrew and Arabic). The prophet Joel be- 
wails the " withering" of the pomegranate, while Hag- 
gai promises its increase to the remnant of the Cap- 
tivity. Joel 1:12; Hag. 2:19. In the Song of Songs 
the upper part of the Shulamite's cheeks (not "temple ") 
i. e. the part just under the eyes, are compared to the 
section of a pomegranate (section of the seeds) on 
account of the oval form and pink white beauty of 
color. Song of Songs 4: 3. 

Poplar. Gen. 30:37; Hos. 4:13. The White 
Poplar, as its Hebrew name Libneh indicates. 

Shittah Tree, Shittim Wood. Ex. 25:10; Isa. 
41:19. The Shittah tree is doubtless the Acacia 
(Acacia Seyal). The wood of this tree, Shittim, is 
repeatedly mentioned in Exodus as the principal tim- 
ber material employed in the construction of the Tab- 
ernacle. Of it were formed the boards for the taber- 
nacle, and their cross-bars; the ark of the covenant 
and its staves; the table of shew-bred and its staves; 



52 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

the pillars on which to hang the veil of the holy 
of holies; the altar of burnt-offering, and the 
staves to carry it; and the altar of incense and its 
staves. It is the only timber mentioned in the list of 
the offerings of the people in the wilderness. Ex. 25 : 5. 
With this corresponds the fact that it is the only tim- 
ber tree of any size in the Arabian Desert. 

Spicery, Spices. Gen. 37:25; 43:11. From the 
way the word is used it would seem to be not a general 
term, but the produce of some specific plant. From 
the similar Arabic term it has been identified with the 
gum tragacanth, obtained from the well known group 
of Leguminous plants, Astragalus. 

Stacte. Ex. 30 : 34. Siacte is the Greek transla- 
tion of the Hebrew name (nataf), which signifies " a 
drop." It is the "sweet storax," according to the 
Apocrypha, a juice or gum yielded by the Storax 
officinale, a plant allied to that producing gum benzoin. 
It is a beautiful, perfumed shrub, growing abundantly 
on the lower hills of Palestine. One of the components 
of the holy incense. 

Sycamore. Amos 7:14. A species of fig tree. 
Fruit inferior. Wood soft, but durable. Large and 
abundant in growth. 

Teil Tree, Terebinth. Isa, 6: 13, etc. Sometimes 
translated "oak," and sometimes also erroneously 
rendered "plain" or "valley," 1 Sam. 17:2, 19; also 
incorrectly rendered "elm," Hos. 4:13. The Hebrew 
term is elali and should be rendered Terebinth tree. 
It is the Pistacia terebinthus of botanists, and the 
Turpentine tree of the Greek Islands. 

Vine. Gen. 9 : 20 ; Psa. 80 : 8. The Land of Prom- 
ise was beyond all others renowned for its vines. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 53 

From ancient days the vine has been the chief type of 
Israel and Israel's inheritance. 

Willow. Psa. 137:1, 2. Two Hebrew words are 
translated " willow,*' ereb and safsafah, and both 
refer to the tree of that name as shown lw the context. 

2.— Herbs and Flowers. 

Barley. Ruth 1 : 22. The most universally culti- 
vated cereal in the world. Largely consumed in Pal- 
estine as an article both of human and animal food. 
The seed-time for barley depends upon the " former" 
or winter rains. It is sown about the same time as 
wheat, but there is an interval of about three weeks 
or a month between the conclusion of the barley har- 
vest and the beginning of the wheat harvest. The 
barley harvest was gathered about the time of the 
Passover. As over against wheat, barley is a sign of 
poverty; and a grain inferior to wheat, and held in 
lower esteem. Hence note the force of several Scrip- 
ture passages. The jealousy offering ordained in 
Num. 5:15 was to be a tenth part of an ephah of bar- 
ley, instead of wheat, as in all other cases, thus indi- 
cating the low esteem in which the suspected parties, 
if guilty, were to be held. So other passages, as Hos. 
3:2; Ez. 4:9-12 and 13:19. Gideon, whose family 
was poor in Manasseh, and he the least in his father's 
house, overheard one Midianite relate a dream to his 
companion, wherein he, Gideon, was likened to " a 
cake of barley bread tumbled into the host of Midian," 
etc. See Judg. 7:9-14. 

Bdellium in Gen. 2:12 and Num. 11:7 supposed 
by some to be an aromatic gum, but is more likely a 
precious stone. 



54 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Beans. 2 Sam. 17:28. The Hebrew name is still 
perpetuated in the Arabic; and, as anciently, so still, 
beans are a common article of food especially with the 
poor. Sometimes mixed with flour for coarse bread, 
but generally they are stewed whole and eaten with oil. 
Ez. 4:9. 

Bramble, Brier, Thistle, Thorns, Hedge of 
Thorns, etc. There are something like eighteen or 
twenty Hebrew words used to denote different kinds 
of prickly shrubs and weeds. Among these are 

a. Atad. Judg. 9:14. Translated "bramble." 
From the cognate Arabic word, and from the uses to 
which the wood, according to the Arabic, is applied, it 
is more than likely that the Atad is the Bhammis, a 
thorny shrub resembling the Hawthorne. This seems 
to be confirmed by what is stated in Psa. 58 : 9 when it 
is remembered that both green and dry the hawthorne 
forms excellent fuel. In this last passage this same 
word atad is rendered " thorns." 

b. Howah. Rendered "brambles" in Isa. 34:13; 
"thickets" in 1 Sam. 13: 6; "thistle" in 2 Ki. 14: 9; 
and " thorns" in Song of Songs 2: 2. By some howah 
is supposed to refer to the Common Thistle. The 
Arabic name corresponds to the Hebrew; and the 
Arabic name is applied to the prickly hedysarum, or 
hedysarum alhagi, a prickly plant with a violet- 
colored flower. 

c. Dardar. In Gen. 3:18 and Hos. 10:8 rendered 
"thistle," and generally admitted to be a species of 
Knapweed, the Star Thistle, called by botanists Cen- 
taur ea calcitrapa. 

d. Heydek. In Prov. 15:19 and Mic. 7:4. Ren- 
dered a " hedge of thorns" and a " brier." Should be 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 55 

rendered in both places a "hedge of thorns" or a 
"thorny hedge," and the first passage should be ren- 
dered "The way of the sluggard is like the catchings 
(mesokath) of a thorny hedge (hedek)." According to 
the usage of the word and according to the Arabic the 
term includes the idea of an inclosing wall and that 
wall composed of a thorny hedge. Moreover the pre- 
cisely corresponding Arabic word indicates precisely 
the kind of thorny plant composing this hedge, viz. 
the Solarium cordatum, or sanctum, or sodomceum, the 
latter of this family being familiarly, but incorrectly 
designated as the " Apple of Sodom." 

e. Kos. Gen. 3:18, etc. Rendered "thorns." The 
term does not seem to refer to any particular plant, 
but to the prickly or thorny quality of any such plant. 

f. Shamir. Isa. 7:23-25. Rendered " briers." The 
precisely corresponding Arabic word is applied to a 
small thorny tree or shrub of the acacia family, the 
mimosa unguis cati. 

g. Naasos. Isa. 7:19. The term is still used in 
Arabic and applied to a certain thorny shrub, a species 
of mimosa or of thistle. 

It. Barkanim. Only in Judg. 8:7, 16. According 
to the context barkanim must be some thorny plant 
that could be used to scourge with. The precise^ 
corresponding Arabic word is applied to a thorny plant 
which the Arabic botanist describes by saying " it has 
twigs like whips." 

i. Sallon. Ez. 2:6. Rendered "briers" and "a 
pricking brier." Probably the Ruscus aculeatus. 

Other words implying thorny plants occur, but the 
above are the principal ones. 

Rrier. See above, under Bramblt . 



56 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Bitter Herbs. Ex. 12:8. In the ordinance of the 
Passover we read "With bitter herbs shall they eat 
it." The "bitter herbs" included Lettuce, Endive, 
Chicory, Horseradish and Coriander. 

Bulrush, Flag, Paper-Reed, Reed, Rush. Six 
Hebrew words are rendered by these names in our 
version, viz. 

a. Gome. Ex. 2:3; Job. 8:11. Rendered "bul- 
rush" and "rush." It is doubtless the celebrated 
Papyrus of Egypt, which grows also in abundance in 
the inaccessible marshes of the " Waters of Merom." 
See also § 53, 6. 

b. Aroth. Isa. 19:7. It is generally agreed that 
this should be translated "green herbage," like the 
Arabic. 

c. Aha, Job 8:11. Rendered both "flag" and 
"meadow." The word is Old Egyptian in origin. It 
occurs in an early papyrus as ali-ah or akh-akh, which 
has the meaning of to be verdant. According to the 
application of the word by the Ancient Egyptians it 
probably means the sedge, reed, or rank grass by the 
river's side. 

d. Soof. Ex. 2: 3, 5; Jon. 2:5. Rendered " flags" 
and "weeds." Another old Egyptian word in origin 
where it is called tufi or sufi. A smaller and inferior 
species of the papyrus growing along the brink of the 
Nile. In Jonah it refers to sea-weeds. The Red Sea 
was always termed Yarn Soof = the Sea of Weeds. 

e. Agmon. Isa. 9:14; Job 41:2. A tall reed or 
cane still common in Palestine and Egypt, resembling 
the bamboo. 

/. Kartell. Gen. 41 : 5, 22. The generic name for 
a reed of any kind. Sometimes denotes a " stalk " of 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 57 

wheat. It was also the name of a measure of length, 
equal to six cubits; Ez. 40: 5. See § 53, 6. 

Calamus or Sweet Calamus. Ex. 30:23, etc. 
The Hebrew word is Kaneh, the general word for 
cane or reed, as see what immediately precedes. This 
word is qualified by bosem = balsam = sweet; but 
the meaning is sweetness of odor, not sweetness of 
taste. The reference is to a fragrant cane or sweet 
spice coming probably from Arabia. Jer. 6 : 20. It 
was one of the ingredients of the holy anointing oil. 
The word Calamus is simply the Latin for " cane." 

Caper. See Hyssop. 

Cassia. Ex. 30: 24. See under 1 of this section. 

Cassia. In Psa. 45:8. A mistranslation. The 
word translated " Cassia" in this passage is simply the 
feminine plural noun from the verb to cut and should 
be rendered cuttings, " cuttings of the fragrant palm." 
See under Aloes No. 1 this section. 

Cockle. Job 31: 40. The meaning of the Hebrew 
word is "stinking weeds." 

Coriander. Ex. 16:31. The well-known plant 
and seed of that name. 

Corn. There are a number of words in the Old 
Testament relating to Corn generally, as follows: 

a. Dagan. Num. 18:27. A comprehensive term, 
used of corn as growing without any preparation, and 
in all cases where the words " corn and wine " occur. 

b. Kamah. Judges 15: 5. Standing corn. 

c. Bar. Gen. 41 : 49. Clean winnowed corn. 

(I. Shebir. Gen. 47: 14. Corn as an article of mer- 
chandise. 

e. Slribboleh. Ruth 2:2. Translated " ear of corn." 
What the word Shibboleh strictly means will appear 



58 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

from the following. In Gen. 41 : 5-7 we read of seven 
ears of corn or grain upon one stalk. The reading or 
the idea conveyed is incorrect. Instead of seven ears 
of grain on one stalk, it means and should read seven 
stalks each with its ear of grain, or grain-head, all 
proceeding from one seed grain. The writer has seen 
as many as forty-five separate stalks each with its one 
head of wheat produced by one seed grain. These 
stalks produced by the one seed grain taken together 
are still called and were anciently called Shibboleh. 

Other terms are used to express " green corn," " old 
corn," etc. 

Many of the above terms for corn are applied more 
frequently to other grains than to corn strictly. 

Cotton. It is probable that the word carpus in 
Esth. 1 : 6 should be rendered cotton instead of " green." 

CUCUMBER. Num. 11:5; Isa. 1:8. The Cucumis 
chate or Hairy Cucumber, but including also the West- 
ern species, C. Sativits. 

Cummin. Isa. 28 : 25, 27. An umbelliferous plant, 
cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are often 
used as a spice. 

Fitches. Isa. 28:25, 27; Ezk. 4:9. In the passage 
from Isaiah the Hebrew word is kesah, which is doubt- 
less the Nigella sativa, a small annual, cultivated in 
Egypt and Palestine for its seeds, which are black, and 
are used as a condiment. The Cummin has a slight 
case and needs but a slender rod to thresh it, while the 
harder pod of the Nigella requires to be threshed by a 
stouter staff, hence the statement in the passage. The 
word in Ez. 4 : 9 translated " fitches " should be ren- 
dered " spelt " as in margin. 

Flag. See Bulrush. 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRHLEOLO(JY. 59 

Flax, Linen, Fine Linen. Ex. 9:31; Gen. 41:42. 
The cultivation and manufacture of flax goes back to 
the coverings of the oldest mummies of Egypt. And 
Pharaoh had Joseph arrayed in vestures of fine linen. 
As with the Egyptian priests so the Jewish priests were 
commanded to wear linen garments. The tabernacle 
curtains were embroidered upon the same material. 
Angelic beings seen by Ezekiel and Daniel appeared as if 
" clothed in linen," the emblematic garments of purity. 

Galbanum. Ex. 30: 34. One of the perfumes em- 
ployed in mixing the holy incense, the gum of which 
is produced from the Galbanum officinale, an umbel- 
liferous plant. 

Gall. See Hemlock under No. 1 this section. 

Garlic. Num. 11 : 5. The well-known vegetable 
akin to the Onion. 

GOURD. Jonah 4:5-10. Some identify Jonah's 
gourd with the Castor Oil tree (Ricinus communis), 
and others with the Bottle Gourd (Cucurbita pepo). 
Palestine is remarkable for the variety of its cucuma- 
ceous vegetables, and for the great rapidity of their 
growth. In 2 Ki. 4:39 another word is translated 
" wild gourd," where the Colocynth seems to be the 
plant intended. 

Grass, Hay, Straw. Several terms are used : 

a. Yered, Num. 22:4. A general term, meaning 
simply that which is green, — herbage. 

b. Deshey. Gen. 1:11. The word most exactly 
answering to grass, and also green in distinction from 
dry grass. 

c. Haseer. Isa. 40:6, 7. The word is translated 
both " grass" and " hay." According to its usage the 
word refers to tall grass, and in a green state. 



60 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

d. Hashash. Isa. 5:24. Mistranslated "chaff." 
The word means dried, cut grass. 

e. Tibn. Isa. 65:25. Is chopped straw. 

/'. Aur. Dan. 2:35; Mos. Psa. 1:4. Chaff. 

g. Eseb. Psa, 104: 14; 106: 2. Herb when it refers 
to human food, and grass when it refers to animal 
food. 

Herbs. See under Grass, etc. 

Hyssop. Ex. 12:22; Lev. 14:4, 6, 51. Taking 
together all the passages in which the Hyssop is men- 
tioned, and taking into consideration all the purposes 
for which the Hyssop was used, as these purposes are 
set forth in the Old Testament and the Mishna, and 
the only plant that answers to all this is the Caper 
plant (Capparis spinosa). The argument in favor of 
the Caper plant is further strengthened by the simi- 
larity of the Arabic name for Caper to the Hebrew 
name for Hyssop. 

Ladanum. Gen. 37 : 25 ; 43 : 11. The Hebrew word 
lot occurs in the above two passages only, and is trans- 
lated "myrrh." But lot is admitted by almost all 
critics to mean Ladanum, the gum or exudation of the 
Cistus, or Rock-rose, of which there are several species 
abundant in Palestine. 

Leeks. Num. 11:5. The Hebrew name is haseer, 
the word translated " grass " when it refers to animal 
food, and " herbs" when it refers to human food. The 
Leek is grass-like in leaf, form and color, and hence 
so called. 

Lentils. Gen. 25 : 34. The Hebrew and Arabic 
names correspond. The Lentil harvest is later than 
wheat, and is cut and threshed like other grains. The 
grain is small, light red or yellowish red disc. The 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 61 

taste is similar to our peas. A largely consumed arti- 
cle of food in the East. 

Lily. Song of Songs 2:1, 2, ete. The Lily is of 
different kinds and colors, and probably different 
kinds are alluded to in those passages that speak of 
the Lily, as e. g. Song of Songs 4:5; 5 : 13 ; Hos. 14: 5. 
The Lily was one of the designs round the rim of the 
brazen sea in the Temple of Solomon. The Lily was 
the type of purity and beauty. 

Linen, Fine Linen. See Flax. 

Mallows. Only in Job 30:4. The Revisers are 
doubtless correct in translating " Saltwort." 

.Mandrakes. Gen. 30:14; Song of Songs 7:13. 
The Hebrew word is diidaim, meaning love 'plants or 
love flowers, and so I think it preferable to translate 
instead of "mandrakes." The translation "man- 
drakes " is not consistent with the statement made in 
The Song, while the translation "love flowers" is; for 
a number of the most fragrant flowers are taken by 
orientals as emblems of love, and called " love flowers." 

Melons. Num. 11:5. The Hebrew name is the 
same as the Arabic name which is still applied by the 
Egyptians to the Water Melon. 

Millet. Hebrew clohan is onty once mentioned 
among the many ingredients which Ezekiel was com- 
manded to take and mingle for his bread. Ez. 4:9. 
The Hebrew and corresponding Arabic word include 
the two species of Millet, the Panicum Miliaceum and 
Sorghum vulgare. 

Nettles. Two Hebrew words are so translated, viz. 

a. Kimmosh. Isa. 34:13. Is identified with the 
Sting-nettle or JJrtica Pilulifera. 



02 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

b. Hand. Job 30 : 7. Possibly the Acanthus spin- 
as us. 

Onions. Num. 11:5. The Hebrew and Arabic 
name is Basal. The onion is so called as being bulbous. 

Pannag. Ezek. 27:17. The corresponding Arabic 
and Persian word is applied to the garden-hemp, 
whence comes the medicinal Hyoscyamus or henbane. 

Paper Reeds. See Bulrush. 

Pulse. Dan. 1:12, 16. The Hebrew word means 
simply " seeds." 

Reed. See Bulrush. 

Rose, Rose of Sharon. Song of Songs 2 : 1 and 
Isa. 35:1. The Hebrew term is general. It means 
simply a bulbous plant; and for that very reason 
shoul a not be rendered "rose." In view both of the 
meaning and the context it wonld be better in the 
above passage to translate " a bulbous plant." 

Rushes. See Bulrush. 

Rye. Ex. 9:32. Identified as Spelt 

Saffron. Song of Songs 4:14:. Is the Crocus. 
( Crocus sativus. ) 

Sodom, Vine of. Dent, 32 : 32. Is probably the 
Colocynth. The fruit is nauseous, and when ripe full 
of dust. 

Spelt. See Rye. 

Spikenard, Nard. Song of Songs 1:12. An Indian 
plant. Imported into Palestine from a very early per- 
iod. Prized both as a perfume and a medicine. 

Sweet Cane. See Calamus. 

Stacte. See under No. 1. 

Thistle. See Bramble. 

Thorn. See Bramble. 

Vine of Sodom. See Sodom just above. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 63 

Wheat. Gen. 30: 14. One of the blessings of the 
Promised Land. The wheat harvest one of the epochs 
of the year. Sown in November and December. Used 
also as a figure of speech. 

Wormwood. Deut. 29:18. It belongs to the genus 
Artemisia. The word occurs frequently but always 
metaphorically, or as a comparison for that which is 
bitter or cruel. 

XVII.— Zoology. 

Out of Palestine's strangely- varied climate springs 
also a corresponding complexity in animal life as well 
as vegetable life. The animals of the Old Testament 
are here enumerated in accordance with their position 
in the animal kingdom. 

1.— Mammals. 

Mammals, or beasts have a twofold classification in 
Scripture : 

a. As to their habits as "cattle," or domesticated 
animals, and "beasts of the field," or wild animals. 

b. Ceremonially, with regard to their employment for 
sacrifice or food, the} 7 are divided into clean and un- 
clean, the clean comprising those which divide the 
hoof and chew the cud, the unclean including all other 
quadrupeds. 

Several Hebrew words are translated "beasts": 
a. Beliemah, the general term for cattle, sometimes 
also for quadrupeds, as opposed to fowls and creeping 
things, Gen. 7: 2. It is also applied to beasts of bur- 
den, 1 Ki. 18 : 5. Sometimes applied to wild beasts, 
Deut. 32 : 24. 



64 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

b. Hay ah, meaning a living thing, but more gener- 
ally confined to carnivorous animals, "beasts of the 
field," Hos. 13:8. 

c. Be'ir, i. e. pasturers or grazers, used only of 
domestic cattle or of beasts of burden, Num. 20: 8. 

The mammals mentioned in the Old Testament are: 
Apes. 1 Ki. 10:22; 2 Chron. 9:21. Mentioned 
only in these two passages, where they are spoken of 
as being imported by King Solomon from Tarshish. 

Ass. Gen. 22:3. Three Hebrew words apply to 
the domesticated ass, as follows. 

a. Haruor. A he ass. Gen. 12:16. 

b. Athon. A she ass. Xum. 22:21. 

c. Ayir. A colt, or young ass. Judges 10:4. 
Two words are used for the Wild Ass, viz. 

a. Arod. Only in Job 39:5. Asinus vulgaris. 

b. Pere. Job 39: 6, 8. Asinus hemippi is. 
Badger. Ex. 25 : 5. Not a badger or any land 

animal is meant, but a marine animal, either the por- 
poise or dugong; according both to the Hebrew and 
the cognate Arabic name. These animals are still 
found in the Red Sea as well as in the Mediterranean, 
and their skins are still used by the Arabs for the same 
purposes as mentioned in the Bible. On the other 
hand the Badger is rarely or never found in the wilder- 
ness. The skins of these marine animals were em- 
ployed for the outer covering of the Tent of the Taber- 
nacle (Ex. 26: 14), and in wrapping up the holy things 
when they were moved (Xum. 4: 8, 10), while they are 
also mentioned as the material of the shoes of the 
prophetic impersonation of Jerusalem by Ezekiel 
(16:10). And the skins of these marine animals are 
still cut into sandals by the modern Arabs. Critics 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. (35 

are generally agreed that the skins of these marine 
animals are intended, and not Badgers' skins. 

Bat. In Lev. 11:19 and Deut. 14:18 the Bat is 
spoken of as one of the fowls that may not be eaten. 
It is classed among fowls as being winged. It is how- 
ever a mammal. The following verse of Leviticus 
speaks of it as among " fowls that creep, going upon 
all four." It is classed among fowls because it is 
winged, and the literal meaning of the Hebrew word 
for fowl is winged. But when the passage adds that it 
" creeps, going upon all four," the Scriptures thus 
recognize and properly classify the bat among mam- 
mals, so that the eminent zoologist, Ray, was not the 
first one to classify the bat properly, according to a 
certain writer. Many species of bat are to be found 
in Palestine. 

Bear. 1 Sam. 17:34; Hos. 13:8. Owing to the 
clearance of timber the bear has been extirpated from 
Palestine, excepting some parts of Hermon and Leba- 
non. The Syrian bear is a distinct species, being 
somewhat smaller and of a paler color than the Euro- 
pean Brown Bear. The ferocity of the Bear is used as 
a simile in Scripture. 

Beast. Several Hebrew words are translated 
" beast." Some of these, Behemah, Hayah and Be'ir, 
have been noticed in the early part of this section. 
The words ziim and iyim are also translated wild 
beast. The former word stands for some desert wild 
beast or beasts, while the latter word meaning " howl- 
ers," stands for jackals. Still another word has the 
meaning of "beast" throughout the Bible excepting 
in the Book of Job, viz. Behemoth, which is applied to 

[5] 



66 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

domestic cattle or any large quadruped, Gen. 6:7; Ex. 
9:25. But 

Behemoth in Job 40: 15-24 is a particular animal. 
From the description given in Job this particular ani- 
mal is doubtless the Hippopotamus. 

Boar, Wild. Psa, 80:13. The Hebrew and simi- 
lar Arabic term is applied alike to the Wild Boar and 
to the domesticated swine. Where it occurs in the 
Bible it usually refers to the tame animal, only in the 
above Psalm to the wild beast. The Wild Boar is still 
quite numerous in some parts of Palestine. The 
Mosaic law makes this animal unclean, because, though 
dividing the hoof, it does not chew the cud. 

Bull, Wild. The Hebrew name is To. Found 
only in Deut. 14:5; Isa. 51:20. The true Wild Bull 
has another name, Beem, translated ''unicorn," q. v. 
The To refers to some animal of the bovine or antelope 
class. Probably it is either the Oryx, or the Bubale, 
the " wild cow " of the Arabs. Permitted for food. 

Camel. Gen. 12:16, etc. The Hebrew name is 
gamed, a name that has been preserved with scarcely 
any alteration in Arabic, Greek, and all modern lan- 
guages. The camel with the single hump is meant. 
It was and is the most valuable of all animals to man 
in the East. Prohibited for food, because while it 
chew T s the cud, it does not divide the hoof, the division 
being only partial. At the present day however the 
flesh of the camel is eaten by all eastern nations. In 
two passages another Hebrew word Beker, Bikrah 
(the masculine and feminine forms of the same noun) 
occurs, and is translated Dromedary, Isa. 60:6; Jer. 
2 : 23. The dromedary is not a different species, but 
only a choicer breed of camels ; — the camel of swiftness. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 67 

Cattle. Different Hebrew words express the dif- 
ferent sexes, ages, and conditions of horned cattle, as 
follows : 

a. Behemah, for beasts in general, often including 
other live stock besides horned cattle. Gen. 34: 23. 

b. Bakar, i. e. Cattle, Oxen; as a rule used collect- 
ivety for a herd of cattle without distinction of age or 
sex. 1 Sam. 15:15. In Gen. 18:7 Ben Bakar == 
Calf. 

c. Shov, i. e. An Ox, used for one head of cattle, 
without distinction of age or sex. Chaldee Tor. 

d. Par, i. e. Bull, and Parah = Cow; generally for 
a young bull or Bullock, and for a Heifer or young 
cow offered in sacrifice. 

e. Aiglah, sl young cow or Heifer; one that has not 
been broken to the j^oke. Hos. 4: 16. 

/. Abirim, i. e. "strong ones," occasionally used for 
bulls. Jer. 50:11. 

Horned cattle were the most important animals in 
the agricultural economy of the Jews. They were em- 
ployed in all the operations of husbandry, as numerous 
Scripture passages show. Especially important was 
their use in sacrifice. There are several provisions in 
the Mosaic law for the protection and tending of cattle. 
They enter into Scriptural figures of speech. In Hos. 
14:2 the expression "the calves of our lips" means 
the sacrifice of our lips. 

Chamois. Only in Deut. 14:5. The Chamois is 
not a native of Bible lands. It is probably the wild 
sheep that is meant. The Hebrew word is zemer, and 
the precisely corresponding Arabic word is applied to 
any sheep or goat that has thin or scanty hair. Per- 
mitted for food. 



(58 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Coney. Lev. 11 : 5. The Hyrax syriacus of nat- 
uralists. About the size of but otherwise unlike the 
rabbit. Prohibited as food. See Hare. 

Dog. Less esteemed than at present. LTsed for 
guarding the flocks. Job 30: 1. L^sed also as a term 
of abject humility in the figurative language of Scrip- 
ture. 1 Sam. 17:43, etc. 

Dragon. Two distinct Hebrew words are thus 
translated viz. tannin (see Dragon under Reptiles) and 
tan, which is always used of some animal inhabiting 
the desert, probably the jackal, q. v. 

Dromedary. See Camel above. The word Recesh 
translated "dromedaries" in Mic. 1:13, etc. means 
simply " swift beast" and refers to a horse of peculiar 
and noble breed. So also Beni Rammak in Est. 8:10 
translated " young dromedaries " should be rendered 
" sons of mares." 

Elephant. 1 Ki. 10 : 22, where we have shen habirn, 
i. e. " teeth of elephants." Habba is also applied to 
the elephant in the Assyrian inscriptions. The same 
name for the elephant is preserved in the vernacular 
languages of Malabar and Ceylon to this day. The 
earliest allusion to the use of ivor} 7 among the Jews is 
in David's time. Psa. 45 : 8. 

Fallow-Deer. Deut. 14:5. The roebuck. Per- 
mitted as food. Part of the daily supply for Solomon's 
table. 1 Ki. 4:23. 

Ferret. In Lev. 11: 30 should be rendered either 
lizard or gecko. L^nclean. 

Fox. Song of Songs 2:15. The Hebrew word 
Shual translated "fox" not only includes the jackal, 
but in most of the passages where it occurs, the jackal, 
rather than the fox, is intended. Another name iyim 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 69 

is also specifically applied by the Hebrews to the 
jackal. 

Gazelle. Song of Songs 8 : 14. The Hebrew word 
for gazelle is Sabi or Sdbiyah. It is mistranslated 
" roe" and " roebuck " in our versions. Noted for its 
beauty, grace and speed. Used as a love figure in The 
Song. 

Goat. Several terms are employed in the Hebrew : 

a. Ez, which signifies the goat generically, whether 
he or she-goat. 

b. Saplieer. An old he-goat. Dan. 8 : 5. Also in 
the later books of the Old Testament for a he-goat 
offered in sacrifice. 

c. Saeer, i. e. "hairy," frequently used in the Pen- 
tateuch for a full-grown goat offered in sacrifice, but 
is generally employed to signify a kid. 

d. Atood is the common word for the he-goat, which 
is the leader of the herd. Jer. 50: 8. 

e. Tayish, i. e. the he-goat as a butter or striker. 
Prov. 30:29. 

Goats were used for food and sacrifice. 

Goat, Wild. Three Hebrew terms are used : 

a.. Yael, i. e. " the climber." The Ibex. Job 39 : 1. 

b. Ako. Probably another name for the Ibex. 
Deut. 14:5. 

c. Yaeldh. The wild she-goat. Prov. 5:19. 
Greyhound. Prov. 30:31. The Hebrew term is 

zarzir or zarzir mathnayim. In the above passage 
where alone it occurs this zarzir is named along with 
the lion, the he-goat, and a king, as one of the " four 
things which are comely in going." There is general 
dissatisfaction with the rendering "greyhound," and 
general uncertainty as to what other rendering to give 



70 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

it. In the midst of this uncertainty I prefer to follow 
the precisely corresponding Arabic term, and so apply 
it not to any animal, but to a certain bird, viz. the 
Starling, called in Arabic zurzur. The Starling more- 
over answers strikingly to the requirement as being- 
one of those things that are comely in going; indeed 
is celebrated in that respect as Pliny himself writes in 
his Hist. Naturalis, x. 24. An eminent naturalist 
writes, " The congregations of Starlings are indeed 
very marvellous, and no less than the aerial evolutions 
of the flocks, chiefly before settling for the night, have 
attracted attention from early times. The extraordi- 
nary precision with which the crowd, often numbering 
several hundreds, not to say thousands, of birds, 
wheels, closes, opens out, rises and descends, as if the 
whole body were a single living thing — all these move- 
ments being executed without a note or cry being- 
uttered — must be seen to be appreciated." It would 
be strange if in those things that are comely for going 
the winged kingdom should not be represented. 

Hare. The Hebrew and Arabic names are similar, 
and there can be no doubt the hare is intended. It 
was forbidden as food to the Israelites because while it 
chews the cud, it does not divide the hoof. Lev. 11:6; 
Deut. 14:7. Strictly, however, the hare, like the 
Coney, is not a ruminant animal, with four stomachs, 
and chewing the cud, but a rodent, of the same class 
to which belong the rat, porcupine, etc. The belief 
that it chewed the cud arose from its habit of con- 
stantly grinding its teeth and moving its jaw, like the 
Coney, and as those animals do that ruminate or chew 
the cud. Moses speaks of animals according- to ap- 
pearances, and not with the precision of a comparative 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 71 

anatomist; just as the Bible speaks of sunrise and 
sunset instead of speaking of the earth's motion. 

Hart and Hind. Psa. 42:1; 2 Sam. 22:34. The 
Hebrew terms are Ayal and Ayal ah, being simply the 
masculine and feminine forms of the same word, or 
the names given to the male and female deer. Either 
the fallow deer or the red deer is intended, probably 
the former. Permitted as food. Deut. 12:15. Used 
also figuratively, standing for swiftness, gentleness 
and affection. 

Hedgehog or Porcupine. The Hebrew word kip- 
pod in Isa. 14: 23; 34: 11 and Zeph. 2: 14 is translated 
in the Authorized Version "bittern" and in the Re- 
vised Version " porcupine." The Revisers are doubt- 
less correct. The corresponding Arabic word requires 
hedgehog or porcupine. The writer of Animals of the 
Bible in the By-paths of Bible Knowledge series seems 
to think that the context renders it impossible to 
translate hedgehog or porcupine. Evidently this 
writer has consulted the context of his Authorized 
Version and' not the context of his Hebrew Bible, for 
the rendering "porcupine" is perfectly consistent with 
the context in the Hebrew Bible. For example, in 
Zeph. 2: 14 the Revision reads " Both the pelican and 
the porcupine shall lodge in the chapiters thereof: 
their voice shall sing in the windows ; desolation shall 
be in the thresholds." The above writer objects say- 
ing of the porcupine and hedgehog, " Neither of them 
sing, or climb up columns to build, or frequent pools 
of water." But the Hebrew Bible does not say so. 
The verb " shall sing" is singular and does not refer 
back to the pelican and porcupine or it would be 
plural. Moreover the word "their," ?. e. " their voice 



72 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

shall sing," has no existence in the Hebrew, which 
simply says "A voice shall sing," etc. Again when 
the same writer objects as to the porcupine and hedge- 
hog, that they do not frequent pools of water, in allu- 
sion to Isa. 14 : 23, he is again in error, as the writer of 
this has secured hedgehogs in the water along the 
shores of lakes. 

Horse. Several Hebrew terms are used, viz. 

a. Soos. Generally applied to a chariot horse. 
Ezek. 27:14. 

b. Par ash. Is translated in our Version "horse- 
man " ; but it is generally agreed that this is incorrect 
and that the word denotes a cavalry or riding horse, in 
contrast to a chariot horse. Ezek. 27: 14; 1 Ki. 4: 26. 

c. Belcesh, translated in our Version " dromedary," 
really means a swift or high-bred horse. 1 Ki. 4 : 28. 

d. Bammah, means a mare. Esth. 8 : 10. 

The first mention of the horse in Scripture is in 
Gen. 47 : 17. The horse is scarcely ever spoken of in 
the Bible except in connection with war and armies. 
The exception is Isa. 28 : 28. All this is to be reversed 
in that future of peace according to Zech. 14 : 20. Note 
description in Job 39 : 19-25. 

Hyena. In Jer. 12 : 9 the Hebrew word sdbuce is 
translated " speckled bird." The word means streaked 
and there is little doubt but that it refers to the hyena, 
as most writers are agreed. So in 1 Sam. 12: 18 the 
proper name Zeboim means the valley of hyenas. 

Jackal. See Fox and Dragon above. 

Leopard. Mentioned seven times in the Old Testa- 
ment. Its swiftness, cunning, perseverance and 
strength are spoken of. It is taken as a type of fierce- 
ness, when in the coming time of the reign of Christ 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 73 

" the leopard shall lie down with the kid." Isa. 
11:6. 

Lion. Mentioned about one hundred and thirty 
times in the Bible. There are several terms used in 
the Hebrew, viz. 

a. Aryeli. The general term for a lion. Gen. 49: 9. 

b. Keplieer. A young lion. Judg. 14:5. 

c. Labi and fern. Ldbiyah. A full grown lion and 
lioness. 

d. Laisch. An old lion; and poetic name for lion. 
Prov. 30 : 30. 

e. Goor. A whelp. Gen. 49:9. Not of the lion 
exclusively. 

f. Shahas. Used twice and only in Job. 28 : 8 ; 
41:34. In the former passage it is translated "lion's 
whelps" and in the latter "children of pride." The 
term means "to cast a shadow," and refers to all 
objects, animals and others that cast a shadow ; and to 
so render it is in agreement with the context and the 
Arabic. 

g. Shahal. Also in Job 28 : 8 where it is again ren- 
dered "lion." The word means "the brayer," and 
the precisely corresponding Arabic word, Sahal, is one 
of the names applied to the wild ass of the desert, and 
so should be rendered wild ass or wild beast. 

Mole. Two Hebrew words are translated " mole," 
viz. 

a. Tinshemeth. Lev. 11:30. Probably a lizard. 
See Chameleon. 

b. Hephor Peroth. Isa. 2 : 20. The Hebrew word 
indicates some burrowing animal. Probably it is bet- 
ter to render the term general — the burrowerx. The 
mole is not found in Palestine. 



74 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Mouse. Lev. 11:29. The term is doubtless gen- 
eric, including other rodents, especially the jerboa ar.d 
field mice. 

Mule. Pered, fern. Pirdah. 2 Sam. 18:9. Not 
mentioned till the time of David. Rekesh in Esth. 
8 : 14 should be Dromedary. 

Porcupine. See Hedgehog. 

Pygarg. Deut. 14 : 4. Probably the Antelope ad- 
dax. Permitted for food. 

Roe, Roebuck. Deut. 14:5; Song of Songs 2 : 9. 
Hebrew Sabi, Sabiyah, should be translated gazelle, 
which see. Permitted for food. 

Satyrs. Isa. 13:21. The Hebrew word is Seirim, 
meaning hairy ones, the same name for goats. The 
Revised Version renders it "he-goats" in Lev. 17:7 
and has " he-goats " in the margin for " satyrs " in the 
text of Isa. 13:21. The Authorized Version of Lev. 
17:7 has "devils." According to this same passage 
the term denotes an object of heathen worship or a 
demon dwelling in the deserts. The worship of the 
goat, accompanied by the foulest rites, prevailed at 
Mendes in Lower Egypt, and the Israelites may have 
fallen into the same snare while they dwelt in Egypt; 
a case similar to Jeroboam's calf-worship later. 

Sheep. Several terms are used in Hebrew, viz. 

a. Sone. A flock of sheep. 

b. Seh. A single sheep or goat. 

c. Ayil. A ram. 

d. Rakal. An ewe. 

e. Kebes, fern. Kebesah. A 3 7 oung sheep of over a 
year. 

/. Taleh. A sucking lamb. 
g. Kar. A lamb in pasture. 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRILEOLOGY. 75 

The sheep is the first animal distinguished by name 
in the Bible. Gen. 4:4. It is perhaps the most im- 
portant of all the animals in the Scriptures : — consist- 
ing of the chief wealth of the patriarchs ; the chief 
animal food ; while its wool supplied almost the entire 
clothing of those days. The sheep was preeminently 
the animal of sacrifice. The milk also was extens- 
ively used. From the sheep and from the shepherd life 
we have some of the most powerful illustrations of 
Scripture. Isa. Oh. 53. 

Swine. See Boar, Wild. 

Unicorn. Num. 23:22, etc. The Hebrew word is 
Beem. By means of the Assyrian bas-reliefs, it is 
shown that the reem was a species of wild ox, now ex- 
tinct in Palestine, but which used to be hunted by the 
Assyrian monarchs. One of the animals is sculptured 
with the name, Beem, written above it in cuneiform 
characters. This animal is the Aurochs, the Bos 
primigenius of naturalists, the wild ox closety cor- 
responding to the Bison, the other species of the two 
great species of wild bovine animals. 

Weasel. The word only occurs in the list of un- 
clean creeping things in Lev. 11:29. The Hebrew 
word is Holed. The blind rat or mole rat is still so 
called in Palestine. 

Whale. This is in a few passages in our version 
the translation of the Hebrew tannin, i. e. " sea-mon- 
ster." (See Dragon, Leviathan, Fish.) Tannin is 
usually rendered Daragon, q. v. ; but the word does 
not always necessarily imply a sea-monster, e. g. Dent. 
32:33. The whale tribe is included, but not exclu- 
sively or specifically denoted by tannin. One passage 
in particular is to be noted, Lam. 4: 3, where we read 



76 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

"Even the sea- monsters (tanninim) draw out the 
breast, they give suck to their young ones." In this 
passage the prophet exhibits a knowledge of the habits 
of the whale tribe, which proves his familiarity with 
some species, at least, of these marine mammals. It 
is well-known that the whales, grampuses, porpoises, 
and dolphins, are not fishes, but air-breathing mam- 
mals, adapted to an aquatic life, which bring forth 
their young alive and suckle them. The whale of the 
prophet Jonah was probably a shark. See Fish. 

Wolf. Gen. 49 : 27. Still called by its Bible name. 
Emblem of ferocity. 

2.-Birds. 

In the narrative of the creation in Genesis birds are 
represented as being brought into existence on the fifth 
day, after sea-monsters and fishes, and before mam- 
mals. This is in accordance with the geological chro- 
nology of their appearance. Moreover the birds are 
stated to have been created from the waters, and not 
like the mammals, from the earth. In the then condi- 
tion of the world, the aquatic birds would doubtless be 
the first class to predominate. Bird remains are found 
where quadrupeds were not yet known. Besides in 
their natural economy birds have some marked affini- 
ties with the fishes and reptiles, as e. g. in their being 
produced from eggs instead of being brought forth 
alive. See Gen. 1:20, 21, 23. 

The Mosaic law divides birds into two classes, so far 
as food was concerned, the clean and the unclean. 
Lev. 11:13-19; Deut. 14:11-20. The unclean in- 
cluded all birds of prej^, and carrion, and fish-feeders. 
As to the XDasserine birds, game and poultry groups, 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 77 

the duck tribe, and most of the waders, excepting only 
the Herons and Storks, there was no restriction. 

The Mosaic law contained also a number of merciful 
enactments in respect to birds, e. g. Deut. 22:6, 7. 

The habits of birds are frequently alluded to in 
Scripture, e. g. Song of Songs 2:11, 12; Jer. 8:7, etc. 
They are also used repeatedly to illustrate Scripture 
truth, e. g. Prov. 27:8; Hos. 9:11; Ex. 19:4; Deut. 
32:11, 12, etc. 

The Birds of the Old Testament are as follows: 

Bat. See Bat under Mammals. 

Bird. Several words are translated " bird" in the 
Old Testament, 

a. Opli. Gen. 1 : 20. Oph is the commonest Hebrew 
term, and is used collectively for all kinds of birds, as 
flying things. 

b. Sippor. Psa. 84: 3. This word occurs over forty 
times in the Old Testament. It is frequently trans- 
lated "fowl"; sometimes it is translated "bird"; in 
two passages it is rendered "sparrow," q. v. The 
name is evidently generic, not denoting any species 
especially, but, like the corresponding Arabic word, 
aprjlied to all the varieties of small passerine birds. In 
no temperate countiy of the same extent are the pas- 
serine birds more numerous than in Palestine. There 
is no prohibition in the Levitical law against the use of 
any of the small birds as food. 

Bittern. Hebrew Kippod. See Hedgehog under 
Mammals. 

Cormorant. Mentioned only in two places, Lev. 
11:17; Deut. 14:17, where it is included among un- 
clean birds. The Hebrew name shalak denotes a 
diving or plunging bird, which the cormorant certainly 



78 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

is. The Hebrew word lcaath translated cormorant in 
two passages in our Version, signifies really the Peli- 
can, q. v. The passages are Isa. 34: 11; Zeph. 2: 14. 

Crane. In Isa. 38 : 14 the Authorized Version reads 
" Like a crane, or a swallow, so did I chatter," while 
the Revised Version reads " Like a swallow or a crane, 
so did I chatter." That is, the R. V. correctly trans- 
poses the birds, and rightly reads agur for crane and 
sus for swallow. (See Swallow.) The same correction 
is to be made in Jer. 8:7, the Hebrew agur meaning 
crane. 

Cuckoo. Lev. 11:16; Deut, 14:15. The Hebrew 
is Shahaf. Probably some species of sea-gull is in- 
tended instead of the Cuckoo. Many species of sea- 
gull are common on the coasts and on the Sea of 
Galilee. 

Dove-Pigeon, Hebrew Yonah; Turtle, Hebrew Tor; 
Turtle-Dove, Hebrew Tor- Yonah. The dove is men- 
tioned more than fifty times in the Bible. No bird is 
more frequently mentioned. While the Jews disting- 
uished the pigeon or dove from the turtle-dove, they 
were perfectly aware of their natural affinity. The 
first mention of the dove is in Gen. 8:8-12. Before 
the giving of the law it was used in sacrifice by Abram, 
Gen. 15 : 9. According to the Mosaic law the pigeon 
and turtle-dove were the only birds enjoined to be 
offered in sacrifice, Lev. 1 : 15; 5: 7; 14: 22; 15:14, 29; 
Num. 6:10; Lev. 12:8. The dove was held as the 
symbol of love, pureness and innocence. 

Eagle. The Hebrew term is neslier, and the Ara- 
bic niser. Neslier is invariably translated "eagle" 
in the Bible. It is generally agreed, however, and 
very obvious from some passages of Scripture, that the 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 79 

word may be more specifically rendered vulture, or 
griffon culture, or great vulture, e.g. Mic. 1:16. 
The corresponding Arabic niser is applied not to any 
eagle strictly so-called, but to the Griffon of natural- 
ists commonly known as the Griffon or Great Vulture. 
A number of passages where nesher is used can be 
applied to the Griffon alone. The Hebrew word com- 
ing from a root meaning to tear with the beak, signifies 
to make bald the back part of the head, very applicable 
to the Griffon and not to the eagle. Eagles do not 
congregate like the Griffon to feed on dead flesh. 
Prov. 30: 17; Matt. 24: 28. Psa. 103: 5 does not refer 
to the moulting of the eagle or griffon, but to their 
longevity, which is noted: "Thy youth is renewed, 
so that in point of strength thou art like the eagle." 
This strength is alluded to in various prophetical writ- 
ings. Isa. 40:31, etc. Job accurately describes the 
habits of the Griffon, 39:27-30. The eagle or griffon 
is used emblematically in Ezk. 1 : 10; and is employed 
as an illustration of divine care, Deut. 32:11, 12; Ex. 
19:4. Gier Eagle. See below. 

Fowl. The Hebrew term 'Ay it, translated " fowl," 
comes from a root meaning to attack vehemently. It 
is a collective term, applied exclusively to birds of 
prey. It occurs three times, — Gen. 15:11; Job 28:7; 
Isa. 18:6. The passage from Job is the more forcible 
when it is remembered that the vulture can detect the 
path of a wounded deer from a height where it can 
itself be seen b}^ no human eye. 

Gier Eagle. Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14 : 17. The He- 
brew name is Raham. It is generally agreed that the 
bird meant is the Egyptian Vulture, the Neophron 
perenopterus of naturalists. This bird is still so called 



80 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

in Egypt, where it is quite common. In this connec- 
tion one passage is especially to be noted, viz. Judges 
5 : 30, where we read, " Have they not sped ? have they 
not divided the prey; to every man a damsel or two." 
And the Revised Version reads it, "Have they not 
found, have they not divided the spoil ? a damsel, two 
damsels to every man." The word or words for dam- 
sel is raham, precisely the name for vulture, and 
should be translated vulture in this passage and not 
" damsel," a meaning the word never has. This is not 
only intimated and confirmed by the Arabic, but also 
by the usages of the Old Egyptians. With the Old 
Egyptians the vulture with outspread wings was the 
emblem of that deity who protected the kings while 
they made their offerings to the gods in the temples, 
and more especially when the king and his warriors 
waged war with an enemy in the field of battle. A 
head-dress representing a vulture was also worn by 
some instead of a cap, the vulture heads projecting 
from the foreheads of the individuals, while the wings 
fell downwards on either side of the neck. Moreover 
the name for vulture in the Old Egyptian was uran, 
which means victory. All this is strikingly confirma- 
tory and explanatory of the rendering in the passage 
Judges 5 : 30 as a part of the history of the defeat of 
Sisera. 

Glede. Only in Deut. 14: 13 among the unclean 
birds of prey. Probably the Buzzard is intended. 
Hebrew Eaah. 

Great Owl. See Owl. 

Hawk. Lev. 11:16; Deut, 11:15. The Hebrew 
term is Nais, a generic term which includes all the 
smaller birds of prey when followed by the expression 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 81 

" after his kind." The variety of the hawk tribe is 
large. Job 39 : 26 refers to their migratory habits. 

Heron. Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:17. Hebrew anafa. 
It is a generic term as shown by the expression " after 
her kind " following. The generic term includes 
herons, bitterns, storks, spoonbills, ibises, flamingos, 
etc. There are about fourteen species of these birds to 
be found in the marshes of Palestine. 

Kite. Heb. Ayyah; an unclean bird. Mentioned 
in three passages, Lev. 11:14; Deut. 14:13; Job. 
28 : 7. Another generic term including the Kite, the 
short toed eagle, etc. 

Lapwing. -Another unclean bird, Lev. 11:19; Deut. 
14:18. The Heb. is dukifafh. The bird intended is 
probably the Hoopoe. 

Night Hawk. Only in Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15 
among the unclean birds. Probably some species of owl. 

Osprey. Only in Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12 among 
unclean birds. Includes the osprey or fish-eating eagle 
and short-toed eagle. 

Ossifrage. Heb. Peres, i. e. the breaker. The bird 
intended is doubtless the Lammer-Geier or Bearded 
Vulture, which drops its prey to break the bone or 
shell. Lev. 11:13; Deut, 14:12. 

Ostrich. The Hebrew word bath-hay yanah or 
yaanah is the usual word for ostrich in the Bible. 
Lam. 4:3. In some other passages the same word is 
rendered owl when it should read ostrich, e. g. Isa. 34 : 
13. Another word, ration, is rendered "peacock" in 
Job 39: 13 where it also should be ostrich, there being 
another word for peacock. The habits of the ostrich 
are alluded to a number of times in the Bible by way 
of illustration. 
[61 



82 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Owl. Several words are translated " owl," and sev- 
eral kinds of owl are mentioned in the Old Testament. 

a. Beth-hay yanah. Translated "owl," should be 
rendered ostrich. See above. 

b. Yanshoof. The Great Owl, the same as the 
Egyptian eagle-owl. Lev. 11:17; Isa. 34:11. 

c. Kippoz. Another species of Great Owl. Isa. 
34:15. 

d. Kos. The Little Owl. Athene persica. Psa. 
102:6. 

e. Lilith. Only in Isa. 34:14. The Screech Owl. 
Note the repeated connection of the owl with the deso- 
lation of Edom in Isa. 34, thus this and the two 
species of Great Owl above. And the owl is abundant 
in Edom. 

Partridge. Mentioned twice. 1 Sam. 26 : 20 ; Jer. 
17:11. Probably includes the two kinds of Palestin- 
ian partridge and the Sand Grouse. 

Peacock 1 Ki. 10:20. The Hebrew word for pea- 
cock, tukklyyim, is of Tamil origin; still in use as a 
name for the peacock on the Malabar coast of India 
and Ceylon. The peacock was imported by Solomon. 
The word in Job 39: 13 translated " peacock " should 
be ostrich, q. v. 

Pelican. In Lev. 11:18; Dent. 14:17 an unclean 
bird. Emblem of Edom's desolation and ruin. Isa. 
34:11. 

Quail. Mentioned in the Bible only in connection 
with the miraculous supply of food which they formed 
for the Israelites upon two occasions in the wilderness. 
Ex. 16:11-13. Psa. 78:27. The Common Quail is 
intended, and is still called in Arabic by its Hebrew 
name. 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRILEOLOGY. 83 

Raven. The Raven is the first bird specified by 
name in the Bible, Gen. 8 : 7. The term however is 
generic in the prohibition of Lev. 11 : 15; Deut. 14: 14, 
and includes the whole family of the Crow tribe, 
crows, rooks, jackdaws, etc. Its Hebrew name oreb 
means dark, black, Song of Songs 5:11. Emblem of 
Edom's desolation, Isa. 34: 11. Illustrates God's good- 
ness and care, Job 38 : 41 ; Psa. 147 : 9. 

Sparrow. See Sippor under Bird. In addition to 
what was said there where the word is generic, there 
are a few definite allusions to a particular species, e. g. 
Psa. 102: 7, where the Blue Thrush may be intended. 
In Psa. 84 : 3 the common House Sparrow is probably 
meant. 

Starling. See Greyhound under Mammals. 

Stork. The Hebrew name Hasidah means kind- 
ness. The Stork has in all ages been held to be the 
type and emblem of maternal and filial affection. 
Greek and Latin authors repeatedly speak of the same. 
Prohibited for food, Lev. 11:9. The quill feathers 
of the wing are deep black, the rest of the plumage 
pure white. See Job 39 : 13 ; Zech. 5 : 9. Its migratory 
habits alluded to in Jer. 8 : 7. 

Swallow. Two terms are used : 

a. Deror. Psa. 84 : 3. The swallow proper. 

b. Sus. Isa. 38:14. The Swift. See Crane. 
Swan. Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:16. According to 

some the Sacred Ibis, and to others the Wild Duck. 

Turtle Dove. See Dove. 

Vulture. Lev. 11:14; Isa. 34:15. The Black 
Kite. The bird is still so called, viz. Hebrew dayah, 
Arabic hadayah. 



84: OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

3.— Reptiles. 

Adder. Four Hebrew words are translated "Ad- 
der" in our Version, viz.: 

a. Shefifone. Mentioned only once, Gen. 49:17, 
where it speaks of Dan being like "an adder in the 
path, that biteth the horse's heels, so that his rider 
shall fall backward." This statement, or peculiarity, 
identifies the shefifone or adder at once with the Horned 
Snake. It is still called shefone in Arabic. This 
species is said to have been the Asp with which Cleo- 
patra killed herself. 

b. Petlien. Is translated "adder," but should be 
Asp, q. v. 

c. Aksliub. Occurs once, Psa. 140:3, where it also 
is translated "adder." According to the correspond- 
ing Arabic probably a generic name for viper, and so 
called because it goes backwards and sideways in its 
gait. 

d. Sifoni. Translated "adder" in Prov. 23:32, 
See Cockatrice. 

Asp. The Hebrew word which occurs six times is 
petlien, Deut. 32 : 33 ; Isa. 11:8, etc. The Pethen is 
the Egyptian Cobra. With the Old Egyptians it was 
the distinctive badge of royalty, the type of dominion, 
affixed to the head-dress of the Egyptian monarchs. 

Chameleon. Hebrew Kowah. Occurs only once 
in Lev. 11:30 among unclean things. Supposed by 
some to refer instead to the Nilotic Monitor, an im- 
mense lizard, attaining a length of four or five feet, 
and common in Egypt and the Sinaitic Peninsula. 

Cockatrice. Hebrew Sifoni. Occurs five times; 
once translated "adder," Prov. 23:32. The Yellow 
Viper may possibly be intended, Isa, 11:8. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 85 

Dragon. There are two Hebrew words, tan and 
tannin. Tan is always used of some animal inhabiting 
desert places. See Dragon and Jackal under Mam- 
mals. Tannin is generally used of aquatic monsters. 
See Whale, under Mammals, and Leviathan later 
under this head. But in some passages tannin is used 
for huge land reptiles, e. g. Psa. 91: 13. 

Ferret. Lev. 11:30. Probably the Common 
Gecko. 

Frog. The translation is undoubted. Frogs are 
only mentioned in the Old Testament, in the history 
of the second plague of Egypt, Ex. Ch. 8, and when 
that event is referred to, Psa. 78: 45; 105: 30. 

Leviathan. Occurs five times in the Old Testa- 
ment. In Psa, 104:25, 20 used generically. In Job 
Ch. 41 it undoubtedly refers to the Crocodile. 

Lizard. The Hebrew Letaah translated "lizard" 
occurs only in Lev. 11 : 30, and there is no doubt about 
the correctness of the translation. 

Serpent. Two or three Hebrew terms are to be 
noted : 

a. Nahash. A general term for the Serpent Tribe. 
Gen. 3:1. 

b. Saraph. Translated "Fiery Serpents." Num. 
21 : 0, 8; Deut. 8: 15. The name plainly refers to the 
bite of some species of desert serpent, but what species 
is unknown. 

c. Saraph Meofaif, i. e. Fiery flying serpent. Isa. 
14: 29. May possibly refer to those sand serpents that 
dart and spring with swiftness in the desert. 

Snail. Lev. 11:30. Hebrew hornet. The Sand 
Lizard. In Psa. 58:8 Shabhil is properly translated 
"snail." 



86 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Tortoise. Lev. 11:29. Hebrew Sab. A large liz- 
ard ; the Uromastix Spinipes. 

Viper. Hebrew Eplieli. Occurs three times, Job 
20 : 16 ; Isa. 30 : 6 ; 59 : 5. Always translated " viper." 
A venemous serpent. Probably a small poisonous 
snake common in the Sahara and still so called. 

4.— Fish. 

The following facts are to be noted under this head : 

a. The creation of fishes falls on the same day with 
marine monsters, reptiles and birds; and it is to be 
observed that all these classes of the earlier creation, 
excepting whales, are oviparous, bring forth their 
young from eggs or spawn, while the creation of the 
following, sixth day, is of mammalia, or milk-giving 
animals, which bring forth their young alive. 

b. No particular species of fish is directly mentioned 
in the Bible. The only distinction made between 
kinds of fish is that in Lev. 11:9-12, between those 
that have fins and scales, which were permitted for 
food, and those that have no fins or scales which were 
prohibited as food. 

c. The Hebrews early noticed the wonderful fecun- 
dity of fishes. Jacob in blessing the sons of Joseph is 
made to say " Let them grow into a multitude in the 
midst of the earth." But strictly, according to the 
Hebrew, what Jacob said was ' ' Let them grow as 
fishes do increase. " Gen. 48:16. 

d. The fishes of the coasts of Palestine are those of 
the Mediterranean generally, with Mullets abounding, 
Porpoises and Dolphins common, Sharks occasional. 
The Nile, lakes and canals of Egypt abound in fishes 
of many species, and frequently alluded to in Scrip- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 87 

ture. Forbidden to the Egyptian priests, fish formed a 
most important part of the food of the rest of the peo- 
ple. Hence the force of the plague when the waters 
were turned to blood, and also the force of Isa. 19:8 
and Num. 11:5. The commonest fishes of Egypt 
belong to the Bream, Perch, and Carp tribes. The 
fishes of the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan and its affluents 
are similar to those of the Nile. They abound in the 
Sea of Galilee. Of the affluents of the Jordan they 
especially abound in the Jabbok, an eastern affluent. 
The fish of the western streams of Palestine, those 
flowing into the Mediterranean, are less numerous. 
Of course no fish survives in the Dead Sea. Those 
entering the Dead Sea are soon stupefied and seen 
floating upturned and dead. Hence, in the mystic 
vision of Ezekiel, no more forcible illustration of an 
entire regeneration of the land by the waters of life 
could be given than a description of these waters of 
death peopled by living things. Ezek. 47:10. An 
artificial preservation of fish seems to be alluded to in 
Song of Songs 7:4; Isa. 19:10. 

e. From the port of Joppa, and from the Phoenicians, 
Jerusalem was systematically supplied with fish. Neh. 
3:3; 13: 1G. The Phoenicians were always the chief 
fishermen of the Syrian coasts. The Hebrew name 
Sidon means fishing-place. This was the earliest and 
chiefest industry of the Sidonians. Similarly Tyre, 
Ezek. 26:5; Neh. 13:16. The inland fishery of the 
Sea of Galilee must have been of considerable com- 
mercial importance in both Old and New Testament 
times. 

/. Several methods of fishing obtained. The Sea of 
Galilee was fished principally by means of the draw- 



88 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

net, or seine ; a large net leaded and buoyed, carried 
out b} T a boat, cast, and then drawn in in a circle en- 
closing the fish. Isa. 19:8; Hab. 1:15. The casting 
net was also commonly used. The hook and line were 
also used in taking fish. Isa. 19: 8; Job 41: 1; Ezek. 
29 : 4. In the smaller streams the spear was also much 
used in fishing. Job 41 : 7. 

g. Among the unclean fishes, the Jews especialty 
named the Cuttle-fish, not however a fish but a mol- 
lusc. This fish is perhaps spoken of in Ezek. 29 : 4. 
More likely the allusion is to the Sucking-fish. 

h. Jonah's fish was probably one of the Shark spe- 
cies, though no description is given us of the particular 
fish. 

i. The worship of fish was prevalent among many 
nations of antiquity, and such idolatry is express^ 7 
prohibited, Deut. 4:18. Among the Philistines the 
fish god was the national deity, viz. Dagon. To this 
deity were erected temples at Gaza and Ashdod. 
1 Sam. 5 : 4. 

5.— Invertebrate and Articulated Animals. 

Ant. Mentioned twice in the Old Testament, both 
times in the Book of Proverbs where it is cited as an 
example of industry, Pro v. 6: 6-8, and a model of wis- 
dom, Prov. 30:24, 25. 

Bee. While honey is frequently mentioned in 
Scripture, bees are mentioned directly only four times, 
viz. Deut. 1:44; Psa. 118:12; Judgesl4:8; Isa. 7:18. 

Beetle. The Hebrew is liargol which occurs only 
in Lev. 11 : 22 as one of the "flying creeping things that 
goeth upon all four, which have legs above their feet, 
to leap withal upon the earth." The beetle does not 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 89 

Leap, but from t ho description, and from the fact that 
it was permitted as food, it is probable that some 
species of Locust was intended. 

Bald Locust. See Locust. 

Cankerworm. See Locust. 

Caterpillar. See Locust. 

Coral. Hebrew Ramoth. Job 28 : 1 8 ; Ezk. 27 : 16. 
Coral is the name given to the strong skeletons of 
polypes of numerous species, giving different forms and 
shapes to the mass. Found in the Red Sea, the Per- 
sian Gulf and the Mediterranean. Highly prized by 
the ancients. 

Crimson-Worm. The Hebrew tolaath, meaning the 
crimson-worm is always translated in our Version by 
"crimson" (Isa. 1:18) or by "scarlet" elsewhere, as 
in many passages in Exodus, describing the colors used 
in draping the tabernacle; in Lam. 4: 5 and Neh. 2: 3, 
the word " worm " being omitted, as in most passages 
the dye obtained from it, and not the worm itself is in- 
tended. The animal is the cochineal. 

Flea. Is mentioned only twice in Scripture, viz. 
1 Sam. 24: 14; 26:20. 

Fly. Two Hebrew words are so translated, viz.: 

a. Arob, which occurs only in the narrative of the 
plague of flies in Egypt (Ex. Ch. 8), and in reference 
to that plague in the Psalms (78 : 45 ; 105 : 41). A par- 
ticular species of fly is probably intended, but what 
species is uncertain. 

b. Zebub, occurs only twice, Eccles. 10 : 1 ; Isa. 7 : 18. 
The first passage seems to refer to the common fty, 
but the second to a species of gad-fly. 

Grasshopper. See Locust. 

Hornet. Mentioned three times in the Old Testa- 



90 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

ment, and in each case as a weapon in the hands of 
the Lord against the Canaanites. Ex. 23 : 28 ; Dent. 
7:20; Josh. 24:12. 

Horseleech. Only in Prov. 30:15. The Hebrew 
and Arabic name means to adhere, as expressive of the 
bloodthirsty propensity of the Leech. 

Lice. Mentioned only in passages referring to the 
third great plague of Egypt, Ex. 8:16-18; Psa. 
105 : 31. The translation is undoubtedly correct. 

Locust. A number of different words are em- 
ployed in the Old Testament to denote the Locust and 
the four different stages of existence through which the 
Locust passes. Thus the palmer worm, canker worm 
and caterpillar in the first chapter of Joel do not mean 
different insects, but refer entirely to the Locust in its 
different stages of existence; and the terribleness of 
the judgment there described consists in the fact that 
the Locust in one stage had no sooner ceased than the 
Locust in another stage took up and carried on the 
work of destruction, and so on, thus prolonging the 
judgment and completing the destruction of the year's 
harvests. Joel also furnishes us in the second chapter 
of his prophecy the most graphic and accurate descrip- 
tion of an insect and an army of insects ever penned. 
The four different stages of the Locust are — the egg, the 
larva, the pupa, the imago or perfect insect. The Lo- 
cust has no chrysalis or dormant state, being indeed 
more voracious in the pupa than in any other state. 
There is a general twofold division of Locusts, viz. the 
Runners, unclean under the Mosaic law, and the 
Leapers, which were permitted as food. Lev. 11:22. 
The different Hebrew words denoting the Locust are as 
follows : 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 91 

a. Arbeit is the commonest name for locust, and 
occurs over twenty times. It is the word used in the 
eighth plague of Egypt. In four passages it is incor- 
rectly translated grasshopper, viz. Judg. 6:5; 7:12; 
Job 39:20; Jer. 46: 23. 

b. Gazam in Joel 1:4; 2 : 25 and translated " pal- 
merworm." It probably denotes the locust in the 
larva state, before its wings are grown, in which con- 
dition it is not less destructive. 

c. Yelek in Joel 1:4; 2: 25 and translated " canker- 
worm." It probably denotes the locust larva or cater- 
pillar state or else in the pupa state. Nah. 3:15, 
16. 

d. Haseel. Joel 1:4; 2:25 and translated "cater- 
pillar," denotes the locust in the pupa or imago state. 
It is to be noted in respect to all the above that after 
the winged locust has left, the young larvae appear 
again, and consume all that has escaped the former. 
Psa. 105 : 34. 

e. Salam, i. e. Bald Locust, only in Lev. 11: -22, 
where the description shows it to be a species of Locust. 
The particular locust meant is probably the genus 
Truxalis, very common in the Holy Land, and which 
has a long, narrow, smooth head, and straight, sword- 
shaped antennaB. 

/'. Hargol, only in Lev. 11 : 22, where it is trans- 
lated "Beetle," but from the description given of it, 
as one of the clean animals allowed for food, it must 
be a species of locust instead of beetle. 

g. Hagab, rendered "grasshopper" in Lev. 11:22, 
but "locust" in 2 Chron. 7:13. 

h. Selasal. Deut. 28 : 42. Precisely what species is 
meant is uncertain. 



92 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

i. Gob. Isa. 33 : 4. Undetermined as to what species 
or state of the locust is intended. 

Moth. Job 4:19; Isa. 50:9. With a single ex- 
ception, every mention of the moth in the Bible refers 
to the destruction it causes in clothing, and so there 
can be no doubt but that the larva? of the little Clothes' 
Moth is meant. 

Onycha. The Hebrew Slielialeth occurs once in 
Ex. 30: 34, asoneof the ingredients in the holy perfume 
of the Tabernacle. The onycha is the horny operculum 
or shield attached to the foot of many shell- fish, by 
which they close the aperture of their shell when the} 7 
have withdrawn within it. From the opercula the 
perfume was collected. When burned it has a strong, 
pungent smell, and is still used in the composition of 
some kind of frankincense in the East. 

Purple. The name of a valuable dye obtained 
from shell-fish on the coasts of the Mediterranean. 
The coloring matter was extracted from a small vessel 
in the throat of the animal, each shell yielding only a 
single drop, after which the whole fish was crushed to 
procure an inferior dye. 

Scorpion. Deut, 8:15. The translation is un- 
doubted. Referred to a number of times by way of 
illustration. 

Snail. The word Hornet translated "snail" in 
Lev. 11:30 should be lizard. The word shablul in 
Psa. 58: 8 is properly rendered "snail." 

Spider. Two words are so translated, viz.: 

a. Akkabish in Job. 8 : 14 and Isa. 59 : 5, where the 
word is correctly rendered " spider." 

b. Semamith in Prov. 30 : 28, where the gecko, a 
species of lizard, is probably intended. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 93 

Worm. Three Hebrew words are translated " worm," 
viz.: 

a. Sas, only in Isa. 51 : 8, where it evidently denotes 
the caterpillar of the clothes' moth. 

b. Rimmali. The translation is undoubted. The 
word is frequently used of the worms or larvaB that 
feed on dead bodies. Job. 17 : 14 ; 24 : 20. 

c. Toleali. Applies to worms, Isa. 14:11, and to 
caterpillars, Deut. 28 : 39. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
XVIII.— General Topography. 

The location of cities, towns and villages will alone 
be indicated under this head, as divisions, districts, 
mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, fountains, etc., of 
the Holy Land have been considered under Political 
and Physical Geography. 

In the Old and New Testament and in the Apocry- 
pha, the names of 840 places in the Holy Land are 
mentioned. Of these 840 places something over 500 
sites have been recovered and identified either with 
certainty or with great probability. 

These sites that have thus far been recovered and 
identified, are, with perhaps a few exceptions, cata- 
logued in this section, in alphabetical order, and the 
precise location is indicated by initial letters. Thus 
N. = north, S. = south, E. = east, W. = west, C. = cen- 
tral, B. = border, while the initial letter of each of the 
tribes of Israel indicates the geographical territory of 



94 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY 

2 

sell's territory west of the Jordan, and Achizib A. W. 
C. B. means that Achzib is to be found in Asher, west- 
ern part, central and on the border. With each place 
is given one of the passages of Scripture wherein that 
place is mentioned. 

-A- 

Abdon. A. C. Josh. 21:30. 

Abel Beth Maacha or 

Abel Maim. N. N. C. 2 Sam. 20:15. 

Abel Meholah. I. S. E. 1 Ki. 1:12. 

Abel Shittim or Shittim. G. S. W. B. Num. 25: 1. 

Abez. I. N. W. Josh. 19:20. 

Accho. A. W. C. B. Judg. 1:31. 

Achshaph. A. K E. B. Josh. 19:25. 

Achzib. Josh. 15 : 44. See Chezib. 

Achzib. A. W. C. B. Josh. 19:29. 

Adadah. S. W. C. Josh. 15: 22. 

Adam. M. W. \ or I. S. E. Josh. 3: 16. 

Adamah. N. S. C. Josh. 19:36. 

Adami. N. S. Josh. 19:33. 

Admah see Adam. 

Adoraim. J. C. 2 Chron. 11 : 9. 

Adullam. J. C. Josh. 12: 15. 

Adummim. B. S. B. Josh. 15: 7. 

Ahlab. N. C. Judg. 1:31. 

Ai. B. N. C. Josh. 12:9. 

Aijalon or Ajalon. D. S. E. Josh. 19:12. 

Ain. Josh. 15:32. See En Rimmon. 

Akrabbim. Mountains. 

Alemeth. B. C. 1 Chron. 6 : 60. 

Allon Bachuth. B. C. Gen. 35:8. 



OLD TESTAMENT AKCH^OLOGY. 05 

Almon. See Alemelh. 

Aloth. A. C. 1 Ki. 4:16. 

Araad. A. S. E. B. Josh. 19: 26. 

Amana. Mountains. 

Anab. J. C. Josh. 15:50. 

Anaharath. I. N. C. Josh. 19:19. 

Ananiah. B. W. Neh. 11:32. 

Anathoth. B. S. C. Josh. 21: 18. 

Anem. I. W. or S. W. 1 Chron. 6: 73. 

Aner. I. S. W. 1 Chron. 6:70. 

Anim. J. S. E. Josh. 15:50. 

Aphek. N. W. slope of Lebanon. Josh. 13:4. 

Aphek. J. N. W. 1 Sara. 4:1. 

Aphek. I. C. 1 Sam. 29: 1. 

Aphek. M. E. |. W. B. 1 Ki. 20:26. 

2 Apheks unknown. Josh. 12 : 18 ; 19 : 30. 

Ar, Ar Moab and Rabbath Moab in Moab S. of R. 

Isa. 15: 1. 
Arab. J. S. E. Josh. 15:52. 
Arad. S. N. Josh. 12:14. 
Archi. B. N. W. B. Josh. 16 : 2. 
Argob. District in M. E. J. 
Arnon. River R. S. 
Aroer. R. S. Deut. 2:36. 
Aroer. G. S. W. (?) Num. 32 : 34. 
Aroer. S. N. E. C. 1 Sam. 30: 28. 
Arubboth. District. J. N. C. 1 Ki. 4: 10. 
Ashdod. J. N. W. Josh. 11: 22. 
Ashdoth Pisgah. Springs. R. N. C. Deut. 3:17. 
Ashkelon. J. W. B. Judg. 1 : 18. 
Ashtaroth and AshtarothKarnaiin. M. E. \. N. C. or 

W. C. Deut. 1 : 4. 
Ataroth. E. E. Josh. 16:7. 



96 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Ataroth Adar. B. W. B. Josh. 18: 13. 
Aven, see Beth Aven. Hos. 10 : 8. 
Azmaveth. B. S. Ezra 2: 24. 
Aznoth Tabor. N. S. E. Josh. 19: 34. 
Azzah = Gaza. J. S. W. B. Deut. 2 : 23. 

B- 

Baalah, Josh. 15: 9, see Kirjath Jeariin. 

Baalath. D. N. E. Josh. 19:44. 

Baal Hamon. Mt. perhaps = Amana. 

Baal Hazor. Mt. E. N. C. 2 Sam. 13 : 23. 

Baal Ilermon = Mt. Hermon. 

Baal Meon. R. C. Num. 32: 38. 

Baal Shalisha. E. 2 Ki. 4:42. 

Baal Tamar. B. S. C. Judg. 20:33. 

Bahurim. 2 Sam. 16: 5. Targuin makes = Alemeth. 

Bashan. District = M. E. \. 

Beer Lahai Roi. S. S. Gen. 16:14. 

Beeroth. B. Josh. 9: 17. 

Beersheba. S. N. C. Gen. 21:31. 

Beeshterah == Ashtaroth. Josh. 21 : 27. 

Bela. Gen. 14: 2 = Zoar q. v. 

Bene Berah. D. X. W. C. Josh. 19: 45. 

Berachah. Valley J. S. E. 2 Chron. 20: 26. 

Bered. S. C. Gen. 16:14. 

Berothah, Ezek. 47: 16, and 

Berothai, 2 Sam. 8:8 = the modern Beirut. 

Besor. Brook S. N. W. 1 Sam. 30: 9. 

Beten. A. E. Josh. 19:25. 

Beth Anath. N. X. C. Josh. 19: 38. 

Beth Anoth. J. C. Josh. 15:59. 

Beth Arabah. J. N. E. B. Josh. 15: 61. 

Beth Aram = Beth Haran q. v. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCH/EOLOGY. 07 

Beth Aven. B. N. C. Josh. 7:2. 

Beth Dagon. D. W. C. Josh. 15: 41. 

Beth Dagon. A. S. Josh. 19: 27. 

Bethel. B. N. C. Gen. 28:19. 

Beth Gader = Gedor. J. N. C. 1 Chron. 2 : 51. 

Beth Haran. B. E. or G. S. Num. 32:36. 

Beth Hoglah. B. S. E. B. Josh. 18: 21. 

Bethhoron, Upper and Lower. E. S. Josh. 16:3, 5. 

Beth Jesiinoth. R. N. W. Num. 33 : 49. 

Bethlehem. J. N. E. Gen. 35: 19. 

Bethlehem. Z. C Josh. 19:15. 

Beth Nimrah. G. S. W. Josh. 13: 27. 

Beth Palet. S. E. J. (?) Josh. 15: 27. 

Beth Peor. R. N. C. Dent. 3 : 29. 

Beth Shean. I. E. C. Josh. 17: 11. 

Beth Shemesh. J. N. C. B. Josh. 15: 10, 

Beth Shemesh. I. S. E. Josh. 19:22. 

Beth Tappuah. J. C. Josh. 15:53. 

Bethul. S. C. (?) Josh. 19:4. 

Bethzur. J. C. Josh. 15:58. 

Betonim. G. W. C. (?) Josh. 13:26. 

Bezek. J. N. W. B. Judg. 1:4,5. 

Bezek. M. W±. E. 1 Sam. 11:8. 

Bezer. R. S. Josh. 20:8. 

Bileam. M. WJ. N. C. 1 Chrou. 6:70. 

Bozez. B. C. 1 Sam. 14:4. 

Bozrah. E. of Bashan. Isa. 63:1. 



Cabul. Z. X. B. Josh. 19:27. 
Cain. J. S. E. C. Josh. 15:57. 
Carmel. Mount. See p. 28. 

[7] 



98 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Carmel. J. S. E. C. Josh. 15 : 55. 
Charashira. Valley. D. C. 1 Chron. 4:14. 
Chephirah. B. W. Josh. 9:17. 
Chesalon. J. N. B. Josh. 15:10. 
Chesil = Bethul, q. v. Josh. 15 : 30. 
Chesulloth. Z. S. E. B. Josh. 19:18. 
Cbezib. J. X. Gen. 38:5. 
Chinnereth. X. S. E. Josh. 19: 35. 
Chinnereth = Sea of Galilee. Xum. 34: 11. 
Chisloth Tabor = Chesulloth, q. v. 
Chozeba, J. X. C. 1 Chron. 4:22, 



D 



Daberath. I. 1ST. C. Josh. 19:12. 

Damascus. Syria. X. of M. EJ. Gen. 14:15. 

Dan. X. & M. EJ. X. B. 1 Sam. 3: 20. 

Dan Jaan. A. W. 2 Sam. 24: 6. 

Dannah. J. C. Josh. 15:49. 

Debir. J. S. C. Josh. 15:49. 

Debir. G. X. B. Josh. 13:26. 

Diblath. X. X. Ezek. 6 : 14. 

Dibon. R. S. Xum. 32:3. 

Dibon Gad = Dibon. See above. 

Dilean. J. X. C. Josh. 15: 38. 

Dimnah = Rimmon (1), q. v. 

Dor. M. WJ. W. B. Josh. 12: 23. 

Dothan. I. S. Gen. 37:17. 

Dumah. J. S. C. Josh. 15:52. 



Ebal. Mount. See p. 28. 
Ebronah. Xear Ezion Geber, q. v. 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRHJEOLOGY. 99 

Edar. J. C. Gen. 35:21. 

Edrei. M. EJ. C. Num. 22: 33. 

Edrei. N. Josh. 19: 37. 

Eglon. J. S. W. Josh. 15: 39. 

Ekron. I). S. W. Josh. 13:3. 

Elah. Valley. J. W. 1 Sam. 17:2, 

Elath. Head of Gulf of Akabah. Deut. 2:8. 

Elealah. R. N. C. Num. 32:3. 

Eleph. B. S. Josh. 18:28. 

Elim. Pen. of Sinai. W. C. Ex. 15:27. 

Elon. D. S. Josh. 19:43. 

Elon Beth Hanan. D. E. 1 Ki. 4: 9. 

Eltekeh. D. S. C. Josh. 19:44. 

Eltolad. S.N. Josh. 15:30. 

Enam. J. N. Josh. 15:34. 

Endor. I. N. Josh. 17:11. 

En Gannim. J. N. Josh. 15: 34. 

En Gannim. I. S. Josh. 19:21. 

En Gedi. J. E. C. B. 1 Sam. 23:29. 

En Haddah. I. S. B. Josh. 19:21. 

En Hazor. N. E. Josh. 19:37. 

En Mishpat = Kadesh. Wilderness of Paran. 

En Rimmon. S. N. or J. S. Neh. 11 : 29. 

En Rogel. Fountain at S. E. of Jerusalem on border 

of J. & B. 2 Sam. 17: 17. 
En Shemesh. Spring E. of above. Josh. 15:7. 
En Tappuah. E. N. E. B. Josh. 17: 7. 
Ephraim. B. N. 2 Sam. 13: 23. 
Ephratah = Bethlehem of Judah. J. N. Mic. 5: 2, 
Ephron. Mount. J. N. B. Josh. 15:9. 
Eshean. J. S. C. Josh. 15:52. 
Eshtaol. J. N. B. Judg. 13: 25. 
Eshtemoa. J. S. E. C. 1 Chron. 6:57. 



100 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY 



Etam. J. S. C. 1 Chron. 4:32. 




Etain. J. N. E. C. 2 Chron. 11: 6. 




Etam. J. N. C. Judg. 15:8. 




Ether. S. N. Josh. 15:42. 




Ezion Geber. Head of Elanitic Gulf. 


Num. 33 : 35 



Gaash. Mount. E. S. Josh. 24: 30. 

Galeed. G. E. C. Gen. 31:47. 

Galilee. District of N. S. Josh. 20:7. 

Galliin. J. N. E. C. Isa. 10: 30. 

Gath. J. N. W. C. 1 Sam. 5:8. 

Gath Hepher. Z. E. 2 Ki. 14: 25. 

Gath Rim mon. D. W. Josh. 19:45. 

Gath Rimmon. M. W|. N. W. Josh. 21 : 24. 

Gaza. J. S. W. B. Gen. 10:19. 

Geba. B. C. 1 Sam. 13: 3. 

Gebim. B. S. Isa. 10:31. 

Gederah. J. N. W. C. Josh. 15:36. 

Gederah. B. S. C. 1 Chron. 12:4. 

Gederoth. J. W. C. Josh. 15:41. 

Gederothaim. J. W. Josh. 15:36. 

Gedor. J. C. Josh. 15:58. 

Gerar. J. S. W. Gen. 10:19. 

Gerizim. Mount. See p. 29. 

Geshur. Part of Bashan. Dent. 3 : 14. 

Gezer. E. S. C. B. Josh. 10:33. 

Gibbethon. D. N. 1 Ki. 15: 27. 

Gibeah. J. N. C. Josh. 15:57. 

Gibeah. B. S. C. Josh. 18:28. 

Gibeah of Saul. B. C. 1 Sam. 14:2. 

Gibeah in theTield. B. C. Judg. 20: 31. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 101 

Gibeah Phinehas. E. S. Josh. 24: 33. 

Gibeahha-Elohim. See Geba. 1 Sam. 10:5. 

Gibeon. B. W. C. Josh. 9:3. 

Gihon. B. S. C. 1 Ki. 1 : 33. 

Gilboa. Mount. I. See p. 29. 

Gilead. Mount. G. E. C. Gen. 37:25. 

Gilead. Mount. I. Part of Gilboa. Judg. 7 : 3. 

Gilgal. B. E. Josh. 4:19. 

Gilgal. E. S. 2 Ki. 2:1. 

Gilgal. D. N. W. Josh. 12:23. 

Giloh. J. C. Josh. 15:51. 

Ghnzo. D. S. E. 2 Chron. 28: 18. 

Golan. M. EJ. W. C. Josh. 20: 8. 

-H- 

Hachilah. Hill. S. of Jeshimon. 1 Sam. 23:19. 

Halhul. J. E. C. Josh. 15:58. 

Hamath. Syria. Num. 34:'8. 

Hammon. A. N. Josh. 19:28. 

Hannathon. Z. N. E. B. Josh. 19:14. 

Haphraim. I. N. W. Josh. 19: 19. 

Hareth. Thicket. J. E. C. 1 Sam. 22:5. 

Harod. Spring. I. E. C. Judg. 7:1. 

Harosheth. Z. S. W. C. Judg. 4:2. 

Hauran. District. M. E.J. E. Ezek. 47:16. 

Hazeroth. X. of Mount Sinai. Num. 11:35. 

Ilazezon Tamar = Engedi. J. E. C. B. Gen. 14:7; 

2 Chron. 20:2. 
Hazor. N. N. C. Josh. 11: 1. 
Hazor. B. Neh. 11:33. 
Hebron. J. W. C. 
Hebron, Josh. 19: 28 = Abdon. 



102 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Helbon. Syria, X. Damascus. Ezek. 27:18. 

Heleph. X. E. B. Josh. 19:33. 

Hermon. Mount. See p. 29. 

Heshbon. R. X. C. Num. 32:3. 

Hezron. J. or S. S. E. B. Josh. 15: 3. 

Hinnom. Valley. See Valleys, p. 32. 

Hor. Mount. See p. 29. 

Horeb = Sinai. 

Horera. X. E. Josh. 19:38. 

Hosah. A. Josh. 19:29. 

Hukkok. N. S. C. Josh. 19: 34. 

-I- 

Ibleam and Bileam. I. C. Judg. 1:27. 

Iron. X. C, Josh. 19: 38. 

Ir. Shemesh. J. X. C. B. Josh. 19: 41. 

-J- 

Jaazer == Jazer. 

Jabbok. River. See p. 35. 

Jabesh Gilead. G. X. W. 1 Sam. 11:1. 

Jabneel. J. X. W. B. Josh. 15:11. 

Jabneel. X. W. B. Josh. 19:33. 

Janoah. X. 2 Ki. 15:29. 

Janohah. E. X. E. Josh. 16:6. 

Janum. J. E. Josh. 15:53. 

Japhia. Z. S. E. Josh. 19: 12. 

Japho. D. W. B. Josh. 19: 46. 

Jarmuth. J. X. C. Josh. 15:35. 

Jattir. J. S. C. Josh. 15:48. 

Jazer. G. S. B. Josh. 13:25. 

Jearim. Mount. J. X. B. 

Jebus = Jerusalem. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 103 

Jegar Sahadutha. G. S. W. Gen. 31:47. 

Jehoshaphat. Valley. See p. 33. 

Jehud. D. N. C. Josh. 19:45. 

Jericho. B. E. Num. 22:1. 

Jeruel, 2 Chron. 20: 16, part of Jeshimon desert, p. 31. 

Jerusalem. B. S. C. B. 

Jeshanah. B. N. B. 2 Chron. 13: 19. 

Jeshimon. Desert. See p. 31. 

Jezreel. I. N. W. C. Josh. 19:18. 

Jiphthah-el. Valley. Z. N. 

Jokmeam. Z. S. 1 Chron. 0:68. 

Jokneam. A. S. Josh. 21 : 34. 

Joppa, D. W, B. 2 Chron. 2: 16. 

Jordan. River. See p. 35. 

Juttah. J. S. E. Josh. 15:55. 

-K- 

Kadesh Barnea. Extreme S. E. Palestine. 

Kanah. A. N. Josh. 19: 28. 

Kanah. Brook. E. W. Josh. 17:9. 

Kedesh Naphtali. N. E. C. Josh. 19 : 37. 

Keilah. J. E. Josh. 15:44. 

Kenath. E. of Bashan. Num. 32 : 42, 

Kerioth Hezron = Hezron. Josh. 15:25. 

Kerioth = Kiriathaim. Jer. 48 : 24. 

Kidron. See p. 33. 

Kir Haraseth, 2 Ki. 3: 25, and 

Kir Haresh, Isa. 16: 11, and 

Kir Heres, Jer. 48: 31, probably = 

Kir of Moab, Isa. 15: 1. In Moab S. of Reuben. 

Keriathaim. R. S. C. Jer. 48:1. 

Kirjath. B. S. W. Josh. 18: 28. 

Kirjathaim = Kiriathaim, q. v. 



104 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Kirjath Arba = Hebron. 

Kirjath Avim, Ezr. 2:25 = Kirjath Jearim. 

Kirjath Baal, Josh. 15: GO = Kirjath Jearim. 

Kirjath Jearim. J. N. C. B. Josh. 9 : 1?. 

Kirjath Saurian, Josh. 15:49, and 

Kirjath Sepher. Judg. 1:11 = Debir, q. v. 

Kishon, Judg. 4: 7. See p. 35. 

Kitron. Z. E. C Judg. 1 : 30. 

-L- 

Laban, Deut. 1:1= Libnah. 
Lachish. J. S. W. Josh. 10: 3. 
Laish, Judg. 18: 7, and 
Leshem, Josh. 19: 47 = Dan. N. N. E. 
Lasharon. N. S. Josh. 12: 18. 
Lebanon. Mount. See p. 29. 
Lebonah. E. C. Judg. 21 : 19. 
Libnah. J. W. C. Josh- 10: 29. 
Lod. D. C. IChron. 8:12. 
Luz, Gen. 28: 19 = Bethel. 



-M- 



Maaeah. District. N. N. Deut. 3 : 14. 
Maaleh Acrabbim = Akrabbim. See p. 28. 
Maarath. J. E. C. Josh. 15:59. 
Machpelah. Cave at Hebron. Gen. 23:17. 
Madmannah. S. X. Josh. 15: 31. 
Madon. N. S. Josh. 11:1. 
Mahanaim. G. N. C. Gen. 32: 2. 
Mahaneh Dan. D. S. Judg. 18: 12, 
Makkedah. J. W. C. Josh. 10: 10. 
Manahath. J. X. 1 Chron. 8:0. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 105 

Maon. J. S. E. Josh. 15:55. 

Marah. E. of Red Sea. Ex. 15 : 23. 

Maresha. J. C. Josh. 15:4-1. 

Maroth, Mic. 1:12 = (?) Maarath. 

Massah, Ex. 17:7 = Meribah. 

Mearah. N. W. of Asher. Josh. 13:4. 

Medebah. R. C Num. 21 : 30. 

Megiddo. I. N. W. Judg. 5 : 19. 

Mejarkon. D.N. Josh. 19:46. 

Mekonah. J. C, Neh. 11:28. 

Meribah, Ex. 17:7, and 

Meribah Kadesh, Deut. 32: 51, in Wilderness of Sinai. 

Merom. Waters. See p. 36. 

Michmash. B. C. 1 Sara. 13: 15. 

Minnith. R. N. Judg. 11:33. 

Misrephoth Maim. A. W. B. Josh. 11:8. 

Mizpeh. G. N. E. B. Gen. 31:49. 

Mizpeh. Land. W. of Hermon. Josh. 11 : 3. 

Mizpeh. B. S. W. B. Josh. 18: 26. 

Moreh. Oak, Plain. E. N. Gen. 12:6. 

Moreh. Hill. I. N. Judg. 7:1. 

Moriah. Land. B. S. 2 Chron. 3:1. 

-N- 

Naamah. J. E. Josh. 15:41. 
Naaran, 1 Chron. 7:28, and 
Naarath. B. N. E. B. Josh. 16:7. 
Neballat. D. W. C. Neh. 11:34. 
Nebo. Mount. See p. 29. 
Neiel. A. S. W. B. Josh. 19: 27. 
Nekeb. N. S. Josh. 19:33. 

[8] 



106 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Nephtoah. Waters. See p. 36. 
Nephtoah. J. N. E. Ezra 2 : 22. 
Nezib. J. C. Josh. 15:43. 
Nimrah. G. S. Num. 32:3. 
Nimriin. Waters. See p. 36. 
Nobah. M. EJ. E. C. Num. 32:42, 



O 



Olives. Mount. See p. 29. 
Ono. D. N. C. 1 Chron. 8:12. 
Ophrah. B. N. C. B. Josh. 18:23. 
Ophrah. E. N. Judg. 6:11. 



Parah. B. S. Josh. 18:23. 
Paran. Desert. See p. 31. 
Peniel, Gen. 32:30, and 
Penuel, Judg. 8:9. G. N. 
Pharpar. River. See p. 36. 
Pirathon. E. N. C. Judg. 12:16. 
Pisgah. Mount. See p. 29. 



R 



Rabbah. J. N. C. Josh. 15:60. 

Rabbath Ammon. G. S. E. Dent. 3: 11. 

Rabbath Moab. S. of Reuben. 

Rabbith. I. C. Josh. 19:20. 

Rakkath. N, S. E. Josh. 19: 35 = Tiberias. 

Ramah. B.C. Josh. 18:25. 

Ramah, N. C. Josh, 19:36, 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 107 

Ramah. A. N. Josh. 19:29. 

Ramath Mizpeh. See Mizpeh. 

Ramoth. I. W. 1 Chron. 6:73. 

Ramoth Gilead. G. W. Dent. 4:43. 

Rehoboth. S. S. Gen. 26:22. 

Rem Dion. S. N. Josh. 19:7. 

Remmon Methoar. Z. E. Josh. 19:13. 

Rephaim. Yale. See p. 33. 

Rephidim. Wilderness of Sinai. Num. 33:14. 

Riblah. On Orontes, fifty miles N. of Damascus. 

Num. 34:11. 
Rimmon, 1 Chron. 0:77 = Remmon Methoar. 
Rimmon, Josh. 15: 32 = Remmon. 
Rimmon. B. N. C. Judg. 20:45. 
River of Egypt. See p. 36. 



Salchah. G. N. E. Deut. 3:10. 

Saleah, Josh. 12: 5 = Salchah. 

Salem, Gen. 14: 18 = Jerusalem. 

Salmon. Mount. See p. 29. 

Samaria. E. N. 1 Ki. 16:24. 

Saphir. J. W. Mic. 1:11. 

Seir. Mount. See p. 30. 

Selaham-Mahlekoth. J. S. E. 1 Sam. 23:28. 

Shalem. E. N. E. Gen. 33:18. 

Shamir. J. C. Josh. 15:48. 

Sharuhen. S. N. W. Josh. 19:0. 

Shaveh. Vale. See p. 33. 

Shebam, Num. 32: 3 = Sibmah, q. v. 

Shechem. E. N. Gen. 12:6. 

Shenir. Mount. See p. 30. 



108 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Shibmah, Num. 32: 38 = Sibinah, q. v. 

Shihor, Josh. 13: 2 = River Nile. 

Shiloah, Waters, Isa. 8:6 = Siloaro. See p. 36, 

Shiloh. E. C. Josh. 18: 1. 

Shimron. Z. S. C. Josh. 19: 15. 

Shittim. G. S. W. Num. 25:1. 

Shunein. I. N. C. Josh. 19:18. 

Shur. Desert. See p. 32. 

Sibniah. R. N. E. Josh. 13: 19. 

Siddiro. Vale. See p. 33. 

Sidon = Zidon. N. of Asher. Gen. 10: 15. 

Siloah, Neh. 3:15 = Siloam. See p. 36. 

Sin. Desert. See p. 32. 

Sinai. Mount. See p. 30. 

Sion. See p. 30. 

Sirah. Well. J. C. 2 Sam. 3:26. 

Sirion. Mount = Hermon. See p. 29. 

Sodom. G. S. W. B. (?) Gen. 10: 19. 

Succoth. G. W. B. Gen. 33: 17. 



Taanach. M. W|. N. E. Josh. 12:21. 

Taanath Shiloh. E. N. E. B. Josh. 16: 6. 

Tabor. Mount. See p. 30. 

Tabor. Plain. J.N. 1 Sam. 10:3. 

Tadmor = Palmyra. Syrian Desert. 

Tappuah. E. N. E. Josh. 16: 8. 

Tekoa. J. N. E. C. 2 Chron. 11 : 6. 

Thebez. M. WJ. E. Judg. 9 : 50. 

Timnah. J. N. C. B. Josh. 15:10. 

Timnath Heres or Serah. E. S. Josh. 24 : 30 ; Judg. 2 : 9. 

Tirzah. M. WJ. S. E. B. Josh. 12: 24. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 109 

Tob. Land. M. EJ. W. 

Topheth. 2 Ki. 23:10. In Valley of Hinnom. See 

p. 32. 
Tyre. A. N. W. B. Josh. 19:29. 



Zaanaim. Judg. 4: 11, and 

Zaanannim, Josh. 19: 33 = the plateau W. of Sea of 

Galilee. 
Zalmon, Mount = Salmon. See p. 29. 
Zanoah. J. N. C. Josh. 15: 34. 
Zarephath. N. of Asher. 1 Ki. 17: 9. 
Zaretan. I. S. Josh. 3: 16. 
Zareth Shahar. R. S. W. Josh. 13:19. 
Zarthan, 1 Ki. 7:46 = Zaretan. 
Zeboim. Valley. See p. 33. 
Zemaraim. E. S. E. Josh. 18:22. 
Zereda. E. S. B. 1 Ki. 11 : 26. 
Zeredathah, 2 Chron. 4: 17 = Zaretan. 
Ziddhn. N. S. Josh. 19:35. 
Zidon = Sidon. 
Zior. J. E. C. Josh. 15 : 54. 
Ziph. J. S. E. C. Josh. 15:55. 
Zophim. Num. 23:14. On Pisgah. 
Zorah. I). S. Josh. 19:41. 



110 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 



XIX.— Special Topography. 

Levites, Priests, Levitical Cities, Cities of Refuge, etc. 



1. The separate houses of the Levitical branch with 
the Aaronic or priestly branch italicized, and accord- 
to Ex. 6 : 16-25 are as follows: 



-Gershcm. jgjj^ 



Levi- 



Kohath. 



( Aaron \ Eleazar 

Amram.. j Moges * ( Ithamar 



( Korah 

Izhar ■< Nepheg 

( Zithri 

Hebron 

( Mishael 
L^zziel... •] Elzaphan 
( Zithri 



Merari \ Mahali 
LMeran... 1 Mushi 



2. There were forty-eight Levitical cities, i. e. cities 
assigned to the Levites as their portion in the distribu- 
tion of the conquered territory. 

3. Of these forty-eight cities, thirteen were assigned 
to the priestly portion of the tribe. 

4. Of the forty-eight Levitical cities, six were ap- 
pointed Cities of Refuge. 

5. The rule generally followed in the distribution or 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 



Ill 



location of these forty-eight cities was four cities in the 
territory of each tribe. 

6. The following are the Levitical cities with their 
location indicated by the initial letter of the tribe in 
which they were situated. The (P) indicates priestly 
cities as per Josh 21: 13-19; 1 Chr. 6: 54-60: 



Ain (Ashan) J. S. (P. ) 


Taanach. I. 


Jattir. J. (P.) 




Aner. W. M. 


Eshtemoa. J. (P.) 




Gath Rimmon. W. M. 


Juttah. J. (P. ) 




Jokmeam. Z. 


Debir. J. (P.) 




Kartah. Z. 


Hebron. J. (P.) 




Nahalal. Z. 


Libnah. J. (P.) 




Dimnah. Z. 


Holon J. (P. ) 




Rehob. A. 


Beth Sheruesh. J. 


(P.) 


Mishal. A. 


Aijalon. D. 




Helkath. A. 


Eltekeh. D. 




Abdon. A. 


Gath Rimnion. D. 




Hammath. N. 


Gibbethon. D. 




Kartan. N. 


Anathoth. B. (P. 


) 


Kedesh. N. 


Geba. B. (P.) 




Bezer. R. 


Gibeon. B. (P.) 




Jahaz. R. 


Almon or Alemeth. 


B. (P.) 


Kedemoth. R. 


Gezer. E. 




Heshbon. R. 


Upper Beth-horon. 


E. 


Mephaath. G. 


Lower Beth-boron. 


E. 


Jazer. G. 


Shechem, E. 




Ramoth-Gilead &-Mizpah. G, 


En-gannim. I. 




Mahanaim. G. 


Jarmuth. I. 




Golan. E. M. 


Daberath. I. 




Ashtaroth. E. M. 



7. Of the forty-eight Levitical cities, the six Cities 
of Refuge, three on each side of the Jordan were ac- 
cording to Num. 35:6, 13, 15 and Josh. 20:2, 7, 9— 

Kadesh, in X. twenty miles E. S. E. from Tyre. 

Shechem, in E. and a royal city. 



112 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Hebron, in J. and a royal city. 
Bezer, in R., Plains of Moab, E. of Jordan. 
Ramoth-Gilead, in G., E. of Jordan. 
Golan, in EJ M. or Bashan. 

8. Royal Cities. These were: 

a. Hebron, where David first reigned. Then 

b. Jerusalem. 

After the disruption, the capital of Judah remained 
fixed at Jerusalem, while the political capital of the 
Northern Kingdom was constantly shifted. Thus 

c. Shecliem was the city where Jeroboam's palace 
was located. 1 Ki. 12:25. 

d. Tirzah. Was the capital of Baasha, and the 
first royal city of the Northern Kingdom till the time 
of Omri, the founder of Samaria. 

e. Samaria. This third capital was bought by 
Omri from Shemer, and eight kings were buried there. 

9. Seaports. First mentioned in time of Solomon, 
viz. : 

a. Joppa, where cedar rafts were brought from 
Lebanon. 

b. Ezion-geber, head of Gulf of Akabah, whence 
Solomon's fleets went yearly. 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRHiEOLOGY. L13 



OLD TESTAMENT ETHNOGRAPHY. 
XX.— Parts and Definitions. 

The Biblical Ethnography of the Old Testament 
treats mainly of the Antiquities of the Jews, and of 
other nations incidentally mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures. This part of the Biblical Archaeology 
of the Old Testament embraces 

1. Domestic Antiquities of the Jews; that is, the 
Jews in their relations to nature and society. 

2. Civil Antiquities of the Jews; that is, the Jews 
in their relations to the different forms of government 
and the political state. 

3. Sacred Antiquities of the Jews; that is, the Jews 
in their relations to religious obligations and usages. 

4. Literature, Science and Arts cultivated by the 
Jews, treated of in part under Biblical Philology and 
Domestic and Sacred Antiquities. 



I. -DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS. 
XXI. -The Dwelling. 

The Hebrew conception of the house embraces not 
only the building or structure, but also the household 
or family. The former is treated of in this section, the 
latter in the section following. 



114 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

1. Kinds of Dwellings. 

a. The Booth. Like the tent and cave the booth 
formed one of the earliest styles of human dwellings. 
The material was generally the boughs of trees. The 
sizes varied. Gen. 33:17; Jon. 4:5. The watch- 
man's booth was a platform elevated on four sticks 
stuck in the ground in the form of a square. Job 
27 :18. The tower in Isa. 5 : 2 was similar to a watch- 
man's booth, onty larger and built of stone. The 
name Succoth means booths. The booth is used by 
way of illustration, Amos 9:11. 

b. The Cave. While the Jews never dwelt perma- 
nently in caves, still some of them at times lived in 
caves and used caves for their sheepfolds as late and 
even later than the time of Saul and David. The 
aboriginal Horites (§ 9, 1, e) were cave dwellers as 
the name indicates. Sometimes the cave was natural, 
at other times excavated in the rock. Gen. 19:30; 
Josh. 10 : 16 ; Judg. 6:2; 1 Ki. 18 : 4, 13, etc. The cave 
is frequently used by way of illustration, Job 30 : 3, 6 ; 
Isa. 2:19; Psa. 71:3, etc. 

c. The Tent, as a dwelling is of the highest antiquity, 
Gen. 4:20. The material was generally goats' hair, 
sometimes camels'. The size depended on rank, 
wealth and need. It was generally divided into two or 
three apartments by means of curtains. Song of 
Songs 1:5. As tent life was migratory, tent furni- 
ture was simple. For centuries, the only sanctuary 
Israel had was a tent-structure. The figurative use of 
the tent is common in Scripture. Isa. 38: 12; 54: 2. 

d. The House. The first mention of the house, or 
permanent dwellings, in the Bible, is in Gen. 4:17. 
In the building the material commonly used was bricks, 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 115 

generally sun-dried, sometimes burnt in kilns. Straw 
was used to give the sun-dried bricks cohesiveness. 
Ex. 5: 16. Bitumen abounded in certain regions and 
was used for mortar and cement. Gen. 11:3-5. 
Stone was also largely used as a building material. 
Wood was scarce. For "Summer" and "Winter" 
house and " Summer Parlor" see what follows under 
Architecture. 

2. Architecture of Dwellings. 

a. Location. The location or site chosen whereon 
to build the house is usually an elevation. This is 
especially the case in Egypt, in order to avoid the 
moisture arising from the lateral infiltration of the 
waters of the Nile, which percolate through the porous 
soil beneath the surface, and then by capillary attrac- 
tion are gradually drawn to the surface at great dis- 
tances from the river itself. 

b. Ground plan. The ground plan of the house is 
a square. The house mayor may not contain an inter- 
ior court, according to the land and means at one's dis- 
posal. The typical oriental house contains an open, 
square interior court around which the house is built. 

c. External appearance. The exterior of the house 
is, as a rule, very plain. The blank walls are relieved 
simply by the huge entrance door, and a latticed win- 
dow or two. In the latticed window is sometimes a 
miniature bay-window-shaped projection enabling the 
inmate to look up and down the street or road. Judg. 
5 : 28. 

d. The Door. The outer door by which entrance to 
the house is gained, is usually large, heavy and kept 
constantly locked. The lock is likewise wooden, con- 
si sling of a piece of wood half a foot long, two or three 



116 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

inches wide, nailed vertically at the edge of the door. 
This part of the lock is alluded to in Song of Songs 5 : 5, 
where it is rendered " handles of the lock." Through 
a groove in the central part of this piece of wood, a 
similar piece of wood passes at right angles to it and 
enters the wall. As it enters its place in the wall, iron 
pegs drop from the first to the second piece of wood 
and so lock the door. The pegs are raised and the 
bolt withdrawn by means of a wooden key furnished 
with stationary iron pegs, entering a lengthwise groove 
in the horizontal piece of wood and lifting the movable 
pegs so that the bolt can be withdrawn. The large 
key when carried with a person is attached to the gir- 
dle or swung over the shoulder. Isa. 22:22. The 
door being opened admits into the court or into a very 
short passage leading directly into the court. 

e. The Court. It is simply a square, open place, 
with the house rising about it on two or more sides, 
The court is scantily furnished. The doorkeeper, the 
servants and sometimes the animals, find their proper 
place in the court. The guest rides into the court and 
waits there till he is summoned or invited to be re- 
ceived. Esth. 6 : 5. From the court a stair-case 
ascends leading to the apartments and rooms of the 
house. 

/. Apartments and Rooms. If means will permit the 
house is of two or more stories. The rooms are divided 
into the male and female apartments, and into the re- 
ception and living rooms. The rooms are square or 
oblong with windows opening upon the interior court. 

g. The roof is flat and frequently resorted to in the 
evening, especially on the part of the female occupants 
of the house, for the cool, fresh evening airs. Much 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. .117 

of the work of the household is clone upon the roof. 
Josh. 2:G. The roof is commonly composed of a few 
successive layers of palm branches, matting and mor- 
tar. The roof is surrounded by a wall, while from 
every part of the roof a view of the surroundings is 
obtained. Hence David's sin, 2 Sam. 11:2. 

//. Summer and Winter House. In Judg. 3:20; 
Jer. 36: 22 and Amos 3: 15 we read of the " summer 
house" and " winter house." They were not different 
dwellings but different parts of the same dwelling, viz. 
the "summer house" being the upper part of the 
house, which was cooler, and the " winter house " being 
the lower part of the house, which was warmer. The 
"summer parlor" which Eglon, King of Moab, had 
"for himself alone," was a small room built by itself 
on the roof of the house, having many windows to 
catch the breeze. Judg. 3 : 20. 

3. Furniture of Dwellings. 

The furniture of the house was both simple and 
limited, as indicated by 2 Ki. 4: 10. In fleeing from 
Absalom, King David furnished his camp only with 
" beds," and washing and cooking utensils. 2 Sam. 
17:28. 

a. The Bed. The "beds" furnished by David were 
not bedsteads — a thing exceedingly uncommon among 
the Hebrews — but a skin mat or rug thrown on the 
ground, with the outer outdoor garment or a comforta- 
ble for covering. At home or on the journey this was 
the usual bed. The nearest approach to a bed was a 
palm-branch or wooden cot-frame, or raised earthen 
platform on the side of the room. 2 Ki. 1:4. Bed- 
steads were not unknown but luxurious. Amos 6:4. 
As with the ancient Egyptians there were sometimes 



118 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

wooden head-rests, but the arm doubled under the 
head served as the most common pillow. Commonly 
the person slept in the clothing worn during the day, 
the outer garment being removed but used as a cover- 
ing. Deut. 24:13. 

b. The Chair, was rarely or r.ever used by the 
Hebrews. The word does not occur in the Old Testa- 
ment. The floor was the common place of sitting. 
Sometimes a wooden bench or earth-work raised in the 
form of a bench was used. 

c. The Table. A piece of cloth, matting or leather 
thrown on the floor commonl} 7 served as the table. 
Still the table was known, used and included in the 
tabernacle furniture. The table for the shewbread 
was a cubit and a half in height, that is, about twenty-, 
nine inches. When the table was used it was gener- 
ally about the same, height, and consisted of a stool 
whereon was a tray, about which, in case of a meal, 
the people sat on the floor, with right knee raised. 
Gen. 27:19. Reclining at the table is a foreign 
notion. 

d. The Lamx), was generally a partly covered sau- 
cer-shaped vessel, only of greater length than width, 
with the end turned up to make place for the wick, 
which ran down into the oil in the saucer. The oil 
was olive oil. The material of the lamp earthenware 
or metal. Job 18:6. By way of illustration Psa. 
119:105; Isa. 62:1. 

e. Other Utensils. The washing and cooking uten- 
sils were both of earthenware and metal, and of differ- 
ent shapes. The fuel was generally charcoal. The 
hands were washed by a servant, who also held the 
towel, pouring water over them. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 119 

4. The Caravansary. The Caravansary was the 
public inn. Its Hebrew name, Malone means "lodg- 
ing place." Gen. 42 : 27. The structure is simple and 
varies in size. The material is generally mud-brick, 
sometimes masonry, with stone. The plan is a square 
or oblong court with one or two stories of rooms built 
around it. The entrance is a large door in the middle 
of one of the sides. There is a well in the middle of 
the court, and stables on the opposite side from the 
entrance. 

5. Cities, etc. It is to be noted 

a. That at an early period a distinction was made 
between cities and villages. The villages were 
smaller, were near the cities and more or less depen- 
dent on those cities. So we frequently read of " cities 
and their villages," and " cities and their daughters," 
i. e. towns, e. g. Josh. 15 : 45. 

b. Anothor distinction was between walled and un- 
walled cities. The villages were without walls, and 
generally depended on the city near which the} 7 stood. 
The unwalled city was distinguished from the village 
only in size. Cities were also distinguished between 
those simply walled, and those more strongly fortified. 
1 Sam. 0: 18; Ezek. 38: 11. The people lived in cities 
or villages, not in houses separated from each other. 

c. At intervals the walls of a walled city were 
pierced by gates which were large, often two leaved, 
and furnished with locks and bars. 1 Sam. 23 : 7. 
The material was wood, rarely brass and iron. Psa. 
107:10. The gate was a place of public gathering 
and marketing. Psa. 69:12. The gates were always 
closed at night. 

d. Three kinds of streets are alluded to : — a long;, 



120 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

narrow and winding street, Josh. 2:19; a short, nar- 
row street, or alle} 7 , Pro v. 7:8; and the broad street 
including the squares and open public places, 2 Chron. 
29 : 4. 

e. The Bazaar was a certain street or section of a 
city devoted to the carrying on of a particular trade. 
Jer. 37:21. 

/. Cities and villages were supplied with water by 
means of Cisterns, Gen. 37:22; Wells, Num. 21:17; 
Pools, Eccles. 2:6; and Conducting Pipes, Isa. 7 : 3. 

XXII.— The Family. 

1. Names. The use of family names to distinguish 
between persons having the same Christian name is of 
comparativel} 7 late origin. With the Jews the distinc- 
tion was made in various ways, as, e. g.: 

a. By the name of the tribe, thus, Beni or Sons of 
Israel or Jacob. Gen. 42: 5. 

b. By the name of the city or town to which the per- 
son belongs, thus, Eliezer of Damascus. Gen. 15:2. 

c. According to the nationality or religion of the 
person, thus Abraham, the Hebrew, Gen. 14:13; 
Mordecai, the Jew, Esth. 6:10. 

d. According to the person's occupation. 

e. Because of some historical incident, thus, Isaac, 
i. e. Laughter. Gen. 21 : 4-6. 

/. Surnames were sometimes made by prefixing the 
word son, thus, Ben-jamin, i. e. son of the right hand. 

g. Proper names were frequently the expression of 
parental feeling at the birth of the child, thus, Simeon, 
i. e. Hearing or God has heard, and Joseph, i. e. God 
has added. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 121 

h. Names are also formed out of the names of the 
Deity, thus, Elijah, i. e. My God is Jehovah. 

2. Children. It is to be noted 

a. Children were regarded as one of the greatest 
blessings from the Lord. Psa. 113: 9. 

b. A son was held in higher esteem than a daughter. 
Gen. 16:4, 11. 

c. The first-born son had peculiar rights and privi- 
leges. Deut, 21 : 15-17 ; Gen. 48 : 18. 

d. A dying father's blessing was uttered under the 
influence of divine illumination and held to be a pro- 
phetic oracle. Gen. 49 : 1-28. 

e. Midwives were employed at the time of birth, Ex. 
1 : 15-17, but Hebrew mothers uniformly nursed their 
own children. 1 Sam. 1 : 23. 

/. A son was circumcised on the eighth day after 
his birth, at which time he also received his name. 
Gen. 17: 12. If he were a first-born son, redemption 
money was paid for him, to the amount of five shekels, 
in commemoration of the deliverance of the first-born 
of Israel when those of Egypt were slain. Lev. 27: 6. 

g. On the fortieth day after the birth of a son, and 
the eightieth after that of a daughter, the mother, 
bringing an offering, presented herself at the sanctuary 
for ceremonial purification. Lev. 12: 2-7. 

h. Mosaic legislation protected the rights of child- 
ren, while it encouraged the utmost tenderness 
towards them. 

i. The greatest importance was attached to the cor- 
rect training of the child from early infancy. Prov. 10:1. 

3. Marriage. 

a. In accordance with the divine intention, marriage 
was well-nigh universal among the Hebrews. 
[9] 



122 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

b. Monogamy was the divine idea in marriage, al- 
though polygamy was permitted because of the hard- 
ness of the human heart. The Mosaic laws every- 
where recognize the principle of monogamy as the only 
true one, while polygamy was practiced under restric- 
tions. Lev. 18:18; Ex. 21:10, 11, etc. 

c. Marriage between near relatives was carfully de- 
fined, regulated and prohibited by the Mosaic law. 
Lev. 18:6-18; 20:11-21; Deut. 27:20-23; 24:4. 
Israelites were also prohibited from intermarrying 
with any of the seven Canaanitish nations for fear of 
endangering their loyal relations to Jehovah. Ex. 
34:16. After the exile the law was extended to for- 
bid all foreign marriages. Ezra 9:12. Additional 
restrictions were placed on the priests, while the high 
priest was limited to a " virgin of his own people." 
Lev. 21:7, 14. 

d. Betrothal, in great measure, was a matter of bus- 
iness between the parents or near relatives of the con- 
tracting parties. It was, however, none the less 
sacred, and was indeed more than a promise to marry; 
for a person could be freed from betrothal vows only 
by death or legal divorce, while faithlessness to those 
vows was punished as adultery. The dowry was fixed 
before betrothal, and was not a price paid for the wife, 
but a present to the parents, Ex. 22:16, 17, or to a 
brother, Song of Songs 8: 12. Marriage contracts were 
for the most part oral, and in the presence of witnesses. 
The marriage bond was guarded by strict and special 
statutes, the sin of adultery being originally punished 
by death. 

4. Divorce. The Mosaic law permitted divorce, but 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRH^OLOGY. 123 

attached to it severe restraints. The law relative to 
divorce is laid down in Deut. 24: 1-4. 

5. Concubinage. In regard to concubinage and 
other forms of unchastity, it is to be noted : 

a. Polygamy is having more wives than one, but 
these wives, before the law, were on the same stand- 
ing with one another. The concubine, however, 
was something less than a wife, but more than a mis- 
tress. The wife was on an equality of social position 
with her husband, but the concubine was a bondmaid; 
frequently the servant of the wife, Gen. 29 : 24, 29, or 
a captive taken in war, Deut. 21 : 10-14, or purchased, 
Deut. 7:3. The Mosaic law carefully guards the 
rights of the concubine as well as those of the wife. 
The disabilities of the concubine related chiefly to the 
matter of divorce, the rights of her children, and her 
own position after the death of her lord. Judg. 9 : 18. 

b. Three other forms of unchastity are the subject 
of special legislation in the Mosaic laws; viz. the 
seduction of an unbetrothed maiden, Ex. 22:16, 17; 
Deut. 22:28, 29; ordinary harlotry, Lev. 19:20; 21:9 
etc. ; and harlotry indulged in under the plea of honor- 
ing idols. 

6. Social Status of Women. Hebrew women moved 
on the same social plane, not only with one another, 
but with the male sex. They were held in the highest 
respect by men. Their secluded life, their custom of 
veiling themselves in public, and other like matters, 
were not imposed upon them by the male sex, but mat- 
ters of their own choosing and ruling, while they 
resented any publicity to which men might wish to 
subject them. Song of Songs 1:6. 

7. Social Inter couse. The Hebrews were by nature 



124 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

a social people, while their political and religious insti- 
tutions contributed to sociability. 

a. Salutations were elaborate but none the less sin- 
cere. There were different movements of the hand 
and different degrees of bowing, but not an actual fall- 
ing to the ground. So there were different methods or 
places of kissing, variously indicating obedience, 
honor, joy and different degrees of intimacj 7 . The 
universal word of salutation was "Peace." 1 
Sam. 25 : 6. 

b. A number of Jewish festival occasions gave 
opportune to and encouraged social intercouse. In 
these the Jews heartily engaged, as e. g. the pilgrimage 
festivals, and the festivities attending the ingathering 
of harvests, the shearing of sheep, the weaning of 
children, the arrival of guests, weddings, etc. 

c. Hospitality was the great, ruling law of society 
then as it still is in Egypt, Arabia and Palestine. A 
guest was welcomed as a sacred blessing and the enter- 
tainment of him a delightful, sacred privilege, not 
simply a courteous obligation. Gen. 19: 1-10. 

8. Servants. At the time of the deliverance of the 
Mosaic law, both voluntary and involuntary servitude 
existed. But while Israel received and observed the 
institution of slavery from former times, still in Israel 
slavery was a very different institution from that of 
other nations and later times. The slave was legally 
on the same plane as the hired servant, sometimes 
treated better than the hired servant, and sometimes 
electing to remain in so-called slavery after emancipa- 
tion had been offered. It was not allowable to sell a 
Hebrew man or woman to a foreigner outside of Pales- 
tine. A Hebrew might become a slave or rather bond- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 125 

servant by voluntarily assuming it on account of pov - 
erty, or by being forced into it on account of debt. If 
for debt the period of slavery terminated with the sat- 
isfaction of the debt, or with the Year of Jubilee, if 
that year should happen to come before the debt was 
paid. With the Year of Jubilee, i. e. every fiftieth 
year, all servitude throughout the land was terminated. 
Slaves having become free were, by law, abundantly 
supplied with gifts by their masters. Dent. 15: 13-15. 
Pentateuchal legislation moreover distinguishes be- 
tween Hebrews and foreigners as servants and slaves. 
9. Deaih and Burial. After death the body was 
wrapped in a linen cloth, with perhaps spices. Em- 
balming was not general. Burial took place the same 
day or following morning. The coffin was open and 
carried to the tomb. The Hebrews buried, did not 
cremate, excepting in rare and special cases. Mourn- 
ing was demonstrative, but sincere. The period of 
mourning lasted seven days, extended on special oc- 
casions. Gen. 50 : 10. Interment was generally out- 
side the town. The tomb was an individual vault 
partly beneath and partly above the surface of the 
ground. 

XXIII.— The Meal. 

1. The food of the ancient Plebrews was generally 
simple, and chiefly vegetable. Milk and honey were 
quite largely used, but bread, vegetables and fruit 
formed the ordinary diet. Deut. 8:8, 9; Judg. 19:5. 

2. The principal cereals were wheat, barley, millet, 
spelt, etc. Grain was sometimes eaten in its native state, 
sometimes parched and sometimes boiled, dried and 
then ground. Ruth 2:14. Grain was ground by means 



126 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

of the mortar and pestle, Num. 11:8, and by means of 
the mill. The mill consisted of two cylindrical stones, 
each about a foot and a half in diameter and five inches 
thick. The upper stone, lying on the other one, has a 
hole in the center into which the grain is poured, and 
then crushed as the upper stone is turned by means of 
an upright spike fastened in the stone. Two women 
sitting opposite each other generally do this work. 
Job 31:10. 

3. Bread was made from wheat and barley flour, 
generally ground coarse. Barley was regularly used 
by the poorer, and sometimes, in case of necessity other 
cereals. Ezek. 4:9. Millet was a grain of the broom 
corn variety, and spelt a kind of wheat. There was a 
coarser and finer variety of wheat flour used. Gen. 
18:6. Bread was leavened and unleavened. The un- 
leavened was to be used when offered in connection 
with sacrifices made by fire, and during the feast of 
the passover. The loaf was a large, round, flat cake. 
Hos. 7:8. The bread was baked on coals, on heated 
stones, and in earthen ovens. Hos. 7:4, 6. 

4. Milk was prepared in a number of ways and 
largely consumed. Milk, artificially curdled, was also 
prepared in different ways and especially favored. 
Olive oil entered into the preparation or was added to 
most dishes. Vinegar and different vegetables pickled 
was a constant dish. Ruth 2:14. Oil cakes and sweet 
cakes were not uncommon. 1 Ki. 17 : 12, 13. 

5. The vegetables chiefly used were beans, cucumbers, 
garlic, leeks, lentils, onions, melons, " bitter herbs " 
consisting of lettuce, endive, chick ory, horseradish, 
coriander, and doubtless many others. (See § 16.) 
Salt, rue, cummin, mustard, etc. were used as condi- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCH GEOLOGY. 127 

merits. (Sec § 16.) Among fruits, the fig, date and 
po megmniate were largely used. 

6. Flesh food was used to a limited extent and under 
a number of restrictions. Certain kinds of animals 
now used were altogether prohibited as food. (See 
§ 17.) Of animals permitted certain parts were also 
prohibited as food, e. g. the fat lying about the stom- 
ach, the kidneys, the part that is "by the loins," etc. 
Again animals or parts of animals designated for sac- 
rifice or other holy uses could only be eaten under 
specified conditions. Meat offered to idols was also for- 
bidden. In Lev. Ch. 11 and Deut. Ch. 14 will be 
found the list of living things ceremonially fit and un- 
fit to be eaten. 

7. Eating with the fingers was the prevailing method. 
This necessitated the washing before and after meals. 
In washing another person poured water over the hands, 
the hands thus constantly being in clean water. 2 Ki. 
3:11. In 1 Sam. 9:13 we have the only instance in 
the Old Testament of prayer being actually offered in 
connection with a meal, but Deut. 8 : 10 would seem to 
imply it. The principal meal was in the evening. So 
the principal religious meal, the passover, was eaten 
after sunset. The next principal meal was the morn- 
ing one. Ex. 16: 12; 1 Ki. 17: 6. The meal was serv- 
ed on a tray placed on the floor or a low stool around 
which the persons sat, not reclined, with right knee 
raised, and elbow of right arm resting on it, or they 
sat with legs crossed. A guest was especially welcomed 
at meal time, to partake with the host, while being- 
waited upon by the hostess, or at times the guests were 
waited upon by host and hostess. Gen. 18: 1-9. 



128 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

XXIV.-The Clothing. 

1. Kinds. 

There is a distinction between male and female dress, 
and between the ordinary dress and the official dress 
of priests, rulers, etc. The priestly dress is described 
accurately, while comparatively little is said about the 
ordinary dress. 

2. Materials. 

a. Leaves of trees. Gen. 3:7. 

b. Skins of animals. Gen. 3:21. 

c. Hair of goats and camels. Lev. 11: 32. 

d. Wool. Lev. 13:47. 

e. Linen, — coarse and fine. Lev. 13:47; 1 Chron. 
4:21. 

/. Silk (possibly). Ezek. 16:10, 13. 
g. The wearing of a mingled stuff, as wool and linen 
together, was prohibited. Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:11. 

3. Colors. 

a. The natural colors were white, black, red, yellow 
and green. White was the prevailing color, and it 
also symbolized joy and purity. 

o. The artificial colors named are chiefly purple, 
blue, scarlet, and vermilion. Purple, blue and scarlet 
were used in the dress of the Levitical priests, and the 
curtains of the tabernacle. Purple robes were worn 
by kings and other high officers. Judg. 8: 26. Scarlet 
was also worn by the wealthy and luxurious. 2 Sam. 
1 : 24. 

c. Joseph's "coat of many colors " is rendered in the 
margin of the Revised Version as being instead ' ' a 
long garment with sleeves." According to the term 
used, and the corresponding Arabic, this garment of 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 120 

Joseph was simply a new and wide, i. e. full, ample. 
Kuftan. The Kuftan is the outer garment of those 
worn under the girdle. It reaches from head to foot, 
and is open all the way down the front, while being so 
ample in width as to double over considerably in front. 
It is also marked by its long sleeves reaching four or 
five inches beyond the finger tips, as fine propriety 
calls for the covering of the hands. The material is 
generally rich and finely striped in various colors. 
Joseph's garment was also probably embroidered along 
the two front edges. Gen. 37: 3, $3. 

4. Men's Dress. The general feature common both 
to male and female attire is that it shall be loose, ample, 
flowing. 

In regard to men's dress several terms are used re- 
ferring to clothing in general and to special garments. 

a. Beged is a term used for clothing or garments 
generally, though sometimes it refers to a better kind 
of outer garment. Gen. 27:15. 

b. Kesuth, refers to garments as articles for covering 
the body. Ex. 22:27. 

c. Lebush is also a general term for garments, in 
which the idea of dressing, being well-dressed is the 
prominent idea, and not simply covering. Hence the 
term is used mostly in poetry, and is sometimes used 
to designate the garment of an eminent person. 2 Sam. 
20 : 8. The term is still used in Arabic. 

d. Simlah is generally used for the large outer gar- 
ment covering all, — the wrapper, cloak or tunic that a 
person wears over everything and frequently uses for 
his covering at night. Gen. 9 : 23. 

e. Gelom was an imported outer garment similar to 
the Simlah. Ezek. 27:24. 



130 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

/. Addereth also a mantle similar to the Simlah but 
oftentimes of better or nobler material. 2 Ki. 1:8; 
2:13. 

g. Meil was a tunic like that described as constitut- 
ing Joseph's " coat of many colors." See above under 
3, c. Samuel's mother made for him a Meil. while he 
served Eli at the tabernacle. 

h. Kethoneth was a sleeveless and shorter under 
tunic worn by both men and women. 

5. Girdle, Head and Foot Dress. 

a. The girdle has always been w T orn by both men 
and women in the East. Sometimes a leather or cloth 
belt is used, but generally it is the girdle, of material 
somewhat heavier and richer than the clothing, and 
about a yard in width and from three to five in length. 
It is used to bind the clothing about the body, to hold 
up the clothing when greater freedom of movement is re- 
quired, and is always tightened up about the loins when 
an unusual degree of strength is to be put forth. Job 
38:3; Psa. 93 : 1 etc. The receptacle made by the fold 
of the tunic above the girdle and over the bosom is 
made to receive various articles. Psa. 74: 11. 

b. The head dress consisted of a tight fitting cap 
with a turban wound about it, similar to those still 
worn. Job 29: 14. 

c. Sandals were worn on the feet. Originally they 
consisted of soles bound to the feet by thongs. The 
sandals were not generally worn in the house, while 
many of the poor went with bare feet. Ex. 12: 11. 

6. Women's Dress and Ornaments. 

The full out-door dress of a woman consisted first of 
all of a large flowing outer shawl covering the whole 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 131 

person, passing from the forehead over the head and 
down to the ground. It was gathered and held in posi- 
tion by the two hands in front. Then came the face 
veil, falling to the feet, fastened behind the head, and 
leaving but little more than the eyes exposed. Under 
the shawl and tied about the head was an oblong em- 
broidered handkerchief with the two ends falling back- 
ward with the hair. The outer garment under the 
belt, worn out of doors, passed from the neck to 
the feet, was of rich material, and opened and 
embroidered at the front above the belt. Beneath this 
was an embroidered jacket. In the house, embroid- 
ered caps were worn, or head tires covered with minia- 
ture gold or silver discs sewed on. In explanation of 
some of the above and in addition to the above, the 
articles of dress and jewelry mentioned in Isa. 3:18-24 
should be noted. Various translations have been 
given to the articles included in that list. The trans- 
lation herewith given is based upon the Arabic, and 
the names of some of them which still continue in use. 
The renderings of the Authorized and Revised Ver- 
sions are also given. 

a. Akaseem. A. V. " tinkling ornaments." R. V. 
" anklets." Arabic Akas whence we have anklets. 

b. Shebiseem. A. V. and R. V. " couls or net- 
works." Arabic Shebeth whence we have clasps or 
brooches. 

c. Saharoneem. A. V. " round tires like the moon." 
R. V. "crescents." Arabic Sdhar whence we have 
jewels. 

d. Netefoth. A. V. "chains." R. V. " pendants." 
Arabic Nataf whence we have earring or eardrops. 

e. Sheroth. A. V. "bracelets." R. V. "bracelets 



132 OLD TESTAMENT ARCELEOLOGY. 

or chains." Arabic Sheree whence we have golden 
discs similar to small coins. 

/'. Realoth. A. Y. and R. V. " mufflers." Arabic 
Raghal, plated jewelry, i. e. plated silver or gold. 

g. Peayreem. Headtires, 

h. Saaroth. A. V. "ornaments of the legs." R. 
V. " ankle-chains." Arabic Saad, i. e. ankle chains 
attached to the anklets to regulate the step. 

i. Keshureem. A. Y. "head bands." R. - V. 
"sashes." Arabic Kasliar whence we have cosmetics. 

j. Batay hanafaisli. A. V. "tablets." R. V. and 
Arabic perfume boxes. 

k. Lehasheem. A. Y. "earrings." R, V. "amu- 
lets." Arabic Haraz, i. e. amulet or charm. 

I. Tabaoth. A. Y. and R. Y. "rings." Arabic 
Taba, whence rings, especially seal-rings. 

m. Nizmay haaf. Nose jewels. 

n. Mahalasoth. A. V. " changeable suits of 
apparel." R. V. " festival robes." Arabic Halis, i. e. 
overdress, described above as worn under the shawl 
and belt. 

o. Maatafoth. A. V. and R. V. "mantles." Ara- 
bic Ataf whence the oblong, embroidered handker- 
chief tied on the head and hanging down behind as 
described above. 

p. Mitpahoth, A. V. "wimples." R. Y. "shawls." 
Arabic Taphah whence shawl from to cover over. 

q. Hariteem. A. Y. "crisping pins." R. Y. 
' ' satchels. " Arabic embroidered purses. 

r. Gilyoneem. A. Y. "glasses." R. Y. "hand 
mirrors." Arabic Galatea whence also hand mirrors. 

s. Sidyoneem. A. Y. and R. Y. "fine linen." 
Arabic Sadan whence strings and fringes whereon are 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 133 

gems or pearls or the like hanging down from the neck 
to the breast. 

/. Senefoth. A. V. "hoods." R. V. "turbans." 
Arabic Sanaf whence embroidered caps. 

u. Rededeem. A. V. and R. V. "veils." Arabic 
Radad whence the front veil. 

v. Maasay Mikshaij. A. V. and R. V. " well set 
hair." Arabic Heshawa whence waving hair. 

iv. Peteegeel. A V. and R. V. "stomacher." Ara- 
bic Fagal whence floiving robes. 

In the above the Hebrew words are the plural nouns 
just as they appear in the passage in Isaiah, while the 
Arabic words are the root words whence the similar 
noun is derived. 

7. The Hair was highly esteemed as a natural orna- 
ment and mark of beauty, especially thick, flowing 
black hair. Song of Songs 5:11. With women the 
hair was long and flowing, Song of Songs 4:1, with 
men trimmed, not shaven. The priests were bidden 
to " poll," that is trim the hair, as against shaving or 
allowing it to grow long. Ezek. 44 : 20. Very long 
hair was the mark of the Nazarite. Num. 6 : 5. The 
case of Absalom was an exception. Hair long and 
uncared for was also a sign of sorrow. Gray hair was 
a mark of dignity and honor. 

8. Pigments — Cosmetics — Perfumes. 

A black paint or powder was as it still is applied to 
the eyelids and eyebrows in order to make the eyes 
appear large and dark, such eyes especially being- 
regarded as beautiful. Jer. 4 : 30. 

From the earliest days to the present time the 
Hebrews and other oriental peoples have been noted 
for their extreme love for and extensive use of per- 



134 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

fumes. Throughout the Song of Songs are repeated 
references in illustration of this fact. Perfume is also 
largely used as a figure of speech indicating accepta- 
bility, fame, delight, etc. 

9. Different kinds of apparel were worn to indicate 
rank, official position, special occasions, etc. For 
Priests' dress, etc. see Sacred Antiquities. 

XXV.— The Principal Occupations. 

The earliest and chiefest occupations of men have 
been the tilling of the ground, and the rearing of sheep 
and cattle. Gen. 4:2; 24:35; 46:34. Property con- 
sisted largely in sheep and cattle as Mosaic legislation 
shows, while large numbers were required for the 
yearly sacrifices. 

1. Sheep. 

a. The most numerous and important of domestic 
animals. To indicate their abundance: — at the dedi- 
cation of the temple, Solomon offered in sacrifice 
120,000 sheep and 22,000 oxen. Just before crossing 
the Jordan the Hebrews took from the Midianites 
675,000 head. The King of Moab paid to King Ahab 
a yearly tribute of 100,000 rams with their wool, and 
as many more lambs. 

b. There were different breeds of sheep, but the most 
common variet} T was the broad or fat-tailed species. 

c. White was the usual color of sheep. Rarely black 
or speckled might be found. They bear twice yearly. 

d. Sheep were of first and chiefest value for food 
and clothing, and as offerings for the sacrifices. Lambs 
of the first year were the most common for the offer- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 135 

ings; but sheep under three years old, and especially 
rams were selected. Ex. 29:38; Lev. 9:3, etc. 

e. Sheep enter very frequently into the figurative 
language of Scripture. The helplessness, tractability, 
patience, innocence, strong attachment, readiness to 
follow, and other qualities seen in the sheep are 
brought forth to enforce great spiritual truths. 

2. The Shepherd. 

a. The term shepherd as used in the Bible includes 
much more than is commonly assigned to it. The 
duties and relations of the shepherd were far more 
numerous and important than is generally supposed. 
The verb to shepherd is frequently used in the Hebrew 
Scriptures, and it is generally translated to feed ; and 
shepherding and feeding are generally conceded to be 
not only synonymous but equivalent, whereas feeding 
is only one item. Other ideas, duties, are embraced 
in the term, just as important as feeding, and to the 
shepherd more laborious and perilous: — the ideas, 
duties, of leading, protecting, sheltering, finding when 
lost, caring for in every event, being constantly with 
them, till the shepherd and the sheep come to feel and 
live a life in common, so that nowhere else will there 
be found a relationship so close and constant between 
the animal and the human. Isa. 40: 11. 

b. The 23rd Psalm furnishes a perfect and complete 
definition of the Shepherd; — of the real shepherd, 
of those who are placed to be shepherds over others, 
and of the Lord as the Shepherd of his people. Thus 
the shepherd is to his flock the source of all sufficiency, 
security, leading, restoration when lost or wounded, 
guidance in safety, deliverence from all fear and dan- 
ger, while they enjoy his constant care, ample provis- 



136 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

ion and abiding presence in all present and for all 
future times. 

c. The shepherds instruments were a long staff with 
a crook at the end, a rod, Psa. 23:4, a sling, and a 
double-reeded musical instrument called still the miz- 
mar, whence the Hebrew word mizmor, i. e. a Psalm. 
At night when entering the fold the shepherd has his 
sheep pass through singly under his rod to ascertain in 
this way if any were missing. Ezek. 20 : 37. 

d. The princes and prophets of Israel were fre- 
quently styled the shepherds of the people, as was also 
Jehovah himself. Psa. 70 : 20. Some of these princes 
and prophets were originally shepherds as e. g. David 
and Amos. 

3. The Sheepfold. 

The fold was generally a stone wall inclosure. The 
shepherd and his dog watched at the entrance. Some- 
times a watch tower was built and used. Mic. 4: 8. 

4. Goats. 

a. Goats were numerously reared. Seven different 
Hebrew words are used to designate the goat, each 
word having special reference to some peculiarty in the 
animal. 

b. A well defined distinction is made between sheep 
and goats. They were pastured in different flocks, 
and had a separate fold from the sheep. 

c. The young- of goats, or kids, are most frequently 
mentioned in the Bible, especially as food at entertain- 
ments. The prohibition of the Mosaic law not to 
seethe a kid in its mother's milk, does not have refer- 
ence to cooking the kid in its mother's milk, or using 
the mother's milk, etc., but the prohibition is that the 
kid shall not be killed while it is yet sucking its moth- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 137 

er's milk. The expression is still used in the East, and 
has precisely this and no other meaning. Ex. 23:19. 

5. Cattle. 

a. Among animals, cattle were the chief helpers of 
man in doing a number of things necessary in agri- 
culture. One of the principal Hebrew terms for the 
ox and cow is based on their ordinary employment, viz. 
the breaking up or ploughing of the soil preparatory 
to sowing. Cattle were also employed to tread out the 
grain, in lieu of threshing, and also to draw and carry 
burdens. The milk and flesh also served as food. 

b. A Deuteronomic prohibition forbids the yoking of 
an ox and ass together in ploughing, owing perhaps to 
the unequal strength of the two, which would react on 
both. Deiit. 22 : 10. 

c. Cattle were highly esteemed and valued. In Egypt 
divine honors were paid to the sacred bull Apis-Osiris, 
and the Israelites themselves who had seen this form 
of worship in Egypt could with difficulty be kept from 
falling into it. 

6. The Horse. 

Not till a late period did the horse become common 
or much used in agriculture. Until the Davidic period 
they were not used in war by the Israelites. Solomon 
imported them from Egypt for this purpose. About 
two centuries later they came to be used to some ex- 
tent in agriculture. 

7. The Camel. 

The variety was the single hump camel. In early 
times seems to have been possessed only by the 
wealthy. Little used by the Hebrews on account of 
the character of the country. For the most part men- 
tioned in connection with neighboring peoples, es- 

[10] 



138 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

pecially dwellers in and traders from desert territory. 
Camel's flesh was forbidden as food. From the skin 
various articles besides sandals were made. The hair 
was used in the manufacturing of garments, tents, etc. 
The palanquin is constructed on a camel or swung be- 
tween two camels. See Camel under Zoology. 

8. The Mule and Ass. 

The Levitical law prohibited the rearing of animals 
produced by two diverse species, as the mule. While 
it is probable that the Hebrews did not break the law, 
still they possessed mules, although the mule is not 
mentioned till the time of the kings. The translation 
" mules" in Gen. 36 : 24 has been corrected by the R. 
V. to read " hot springs." 

At a very early period the Ass was known, domesti- 
cated and used. Before the tenth century B. C. it was 
the animal most used for riding and carrying burdens. 
Num. Ch. 22. Like the ox it was most serviceable as 
a helper to man; hence the commandment Ex. 20:17. 
Figures in the Messianic prophecy Zech. 9 : 9. See un- 
der Zoology. 

9. Agriculture. 

Besides the rearing of sheep and cattle, agriculture 
constituted the other principal occupation of man. 
During their residence in Egypt the Hebrews became 
acquainted with many processes of agriculture. When 
they settled in Canaan the most of them became agri- 
culturists. Pentateuchal legislation regards land as 
the principal possession and agriculture as the princi- 
pal occupation. Moreover, according to this legisla- 
tion, each family was to have its own section of land, 
which was carefully surveyed, and to tamper with that 
survey was a crime. Deut. 19:14. Instead of 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 139 

" acres " land was divided into portions such as a yoke 
of oxen could plow in a day. The value of the land was 
in proportion to its yield in grain, Lev. 27: 16. Irriga- 
tion was carried on, but not to the extent made neces- 
sary in Egypt. Ashes and manure were used in ferti- 
lizing. The fertility of the land was far greater then 
than now. 

10. The Sabbatic year. 

The rich fertility, the natural productiveness of the 
soil in ancient times was heightened by the institution 
of the Sabbatic year, according to which the Israelites 
were required to let the ground lie fallow every seventh 
year ; — a legislation similar to that of the seventh day 
and seventh month. Ex. 23:10-12; Lev. 25:1-7; 
Deut. 15 : 1-11. Whatever grew spontaneously during 
the Sabbatic year was to be shared equally with the 
poor, the strangers and the cattle. 

11. Grains. 

The principal grains were wheat, barley, spelt, mil- 
let, fitches, cummin, beans and lentils. For descrip- 
tion of these see under Botany. 

12. Seasons. See § 15. 

13. Agricultural Implements. 

These were very few and crude. The plough was of 
the same general form as the modern plough, but of 
ruder construction, and did but little more than break 
the surface soil instead of turning it over. The yoke 
also was on the same plan as the modern yoke. The 
harrow was a board to which was attached thorn 
bushes. Instead of the whip was the goad, a long- 
stick made sharp at one end and capped with an iron 
point. Judg. 3: 31. 

14. Agricultural Processes, 



140 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

a. The sowing generally followed the early rain. 
(§ 15, 3.) The seed was sown broadcast with the 
hand, sometimes in drills. The order was the hardier 
products first and ending with wheat and barley. It 
was forbidden to sow the same field with two kinds of 
seeds. Lev. 19: 19. 

b. The harvest was inaugurated by bringing a sheaf 
of new grain into the sanctuary and waving it before 
the Lord. Seven weeks from this date, at the feast of 
pentecost, two loaves of bread, made of new flour, 
were waved before the Lord, as the passover sheaf had 
been ; — the sheaf having been waved on the day fol- 
lowing the passover Sabbath. During the seven weeks 
between those two dates the harvest continued, includ- 
ing threshing. Grain was generally cut with a sickle. 
It was then piled up or bound into sheaves. 

c. Threshing was done in the field and followed 
close upon reaping. The threshing floor was a hard- 
ened piece of ground, circular in shape. The grain 
was beaten out with sticks, or by driving yoked cattle 
over it, the cattle drawing a threshing sledge or roller 
in which were fitted revolving cylinders. Isa. 28 : 27. 

d. Winnowing immediately succeeded threshing. 
The straw was thrown up with a fork or shovel, and 
then afterwards the mixed grain and chaff were thrown 
up with a fan or shovel, the grain falling to the ground 
while the chaff was carried away by the wind. 
Isa. 30 : 24. 

e. Sifting succeeded winnowing, in order to separate 
the grain from dust and dirt. Amos 9 : 9. 

15. The Fruit Harvests. 

With the gathering of the later fruits, the harvests 
of the year closed. The picked grape clusters that 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 141 

were to be converted into raisins were dipped in a 
strong lye and dried in the sun. Grapes to be con- 
verted into wine were sent directly to the wine press, 
where they were trodden with the naked feet, the juice 
escaping into a vat. Isa. 63 : 2, 3. The olives gath- 
ered generally in November were picked for eating or 
crushed for their oil. The olive press consisted of a 
large circular stone hollowed out, the olives being put 
in the hollowed portion, and crushed by means of 
another large stone like a grindstone, set upright and 
moved around by a pole extending through its centre. 
The grape and olive were the most important fruits of 
the fruit harvest, and alone paid the tithe, and came 
under the law of first fruits. Lev. 27 : 30. The Mosaic 
law made unclean the fruit of a tree for three years 
after it began to bear, while the fruit of the fourth 
year was consecrated to Jevohah, so that not till the 
fifth year could the owner use the fruit as his own. 
Lev. 19:23-25. 

16. Gardening. 

The garden was devoted to flowers, shrubs and fruit 
trees, not to vegetables. The garden was generally 
located near some natural spring, and for -protection 
was walled and watched. The best description of a 
garden is given in Song of Songs 4: 12-16; 5 : 1. 

XXVI.— The Commercial Life. 

1. The Scriptural Standpoint. 

a. The original Hebrew idea of commerce was that 
of a person going from place to place, trading, traffic- 
ing. Still local trade was also carried on to some ex- 
tent. Land and spices were in earliest times the prin- 



142 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

cipal articles of trade. There was a limited trade in 
slaves. Gen. 37:25-27. Later, grain was imported 
into Canaan from Egypt and paid for with silver pieces 
which were weighed. Gen. 42: 1, 2. 

b. Palestine being such a mountainous country, and 
having deserts to its south and east, was naturally un- 
suited to commerce. 

c. In addition to the phj^sical character of the coun- 
try, the religious legislation and institutions of the 
Israelites did not particularly encourage a commercial 
life. Trade was legitimate, but was regarded with less 
favor as compared with shepherding and agriculture. 

The reason was evident, because a commercial life 
brought them into contact with heathen nations, by 
whom they might become corrupted, as was the case 
more than once. Isa. 2:6, 7. 

2. Trade under the Kings. 

a. Before the time of David it was for the most part 
a home trade, among the Israelites themselves, that 
was carried on, while only a limited foreign trade was 
carried on, mainly with Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt. 
With the extension of the kingdom under David, com- 
merce also became enlarged. 

b. Under Solomon, commerce reached its highest 
stage. Not only by land, but an extensive maritime 
commerce was carried on. From Phoenician and Red 
Sea ports the merchant fleets of Hiram and Solomon 
sailed to various countries bordering the Indian Ocean 
and Persian Gulf, for purposes of trade. Naturally 
foreign traders responded by coming to Palestine and 
Jerusalem. Moral corruption followed upon this com- 
mercial intercourse. 

c. The division of the kingdom under Rehoboam 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 143 

acted against foreign trade, which greatly decreased, 
till finally foreign traders became exceedingly obnox- 
ious in Palestine. Under the Maccabees there was a 
temporary commercial revival. 

3. Transportation. 

a. Roads. While foot-paths for men and beasts were 
for the most part used, still road-building was known, 
and constructed roads for foot travelers and vehicles were 
used at an early period. Some of the roads built 
stretched great distances and were elaborately con- 
structed highways, serving for the passage of armies 
and chariots. Special instructions were given as to 
the roads leading to the cities of refuge. Deut. 19: 3. 
Streams were commonly crossed by fording. 

b. Traveling. Journeys by water were seldom 
made. Not only short but very long journeys were 
made by land. These journeys were commonly made 
on foot. When animals were used it was generally 
the ass, sometimes the camel, the latter especially for 
desert traveling. After the period of the kings, horses 
were ridden, but as a rule only in war, where also the 
chariot was used. The chariot was the royal vehicle. 
Burdens were conveyed on the backs of animals and in 
two- wheeled carts or wagons. 1 Sam. 6:7, 8. 

c. Navigation. No mention is made in the Old Tes- 
tament of boats on the Sea of Galilee. Navigation, 
however, was well known to the Hebrews, although in- 
frequently indulged in. The vessels were for the most 
part merchantmen, a description of which is given in 
Ezek. 27 : 5-9, 27, The Book of Jonah likewise fur- 
nishes considerable information as to navigation in 
those days. 

4. The Monetary System. 



144 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

a. Coined money did not circulate among the Israel- 
ites before the exile. Uncoined money dates back to 
the earliest times. 

b. Money was weighed. For a piece of land Abra- 
ham "weighed to Ephron the silver, four hundred 
shekels of silver, current money with the merchant." 
Gen. 23 : 16. Many other instances of weighing money 
are found in the Old Testament. The word shekel 
means to weigh. 

c. The metals most frequently mentioned are silver 
and gold. 

d. These metals as mediums of exchange took the 
forms of rings, wedges, shekel pieces, etc. Josh. 7 : 21. 

e. Value of money by weight. Silver : 1 Gerah = 
.0365 cents = 11 grains. 1 Sekah = .365 cents = 110 
grains. 1 Shekel = .73 cents = 220 grains. 1 Maneh 
= $43.80 and = 13,200 grains. 1 Talent = $2,190.00 
and = about 6 lbs. avoirdupois. Gold: 1 Shekel = 
$5.35 and = 132 grains. 1 Maneh = $535.00 and = 
13,200 grains. 1 Talent = $53,500.00 and = nearly 
12 lbs. avoirdupois. 

/. Coined Money. Coined money began to circulate 
in Palestine soon after the Exile. The Persian daric 
mentioned in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah was 
worth about $5.00. The Jewish right to coin money 
was first given to Simon Maccabseus 143 B. C. 

g. Relative worth of money. In Mosaic times a ram 
was worth about two silver shekels or about $1.50. 
The average price for a slave was thirty silver shekels, 
but Joseph was sold by his brethren for twenty. For 
the threshing floor of Araunah and two yoke of oxen, 
David paid, according to 2 Sam. 24 : 24 the sum of fifty 
silver shekels. An imported Egyptian horse in Solo- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 145 

m on's time cost one hundred and fifty shekels, and a 
chariot six hundred. Omri bought the mountain on 
which Samaria afterward stood, for two silver talents, 
i. e. six thousand shekels. In Isaiah's time a vineyard 
sold for as many shekels as it had vines. Isa. 7 : 23. 
In the time of the Judges the wages of a man by the 
year, including board and one suit of clothing, was ten 
shekels of silver. 
5. Measurements. 

a. Measure of length. 1 Finger (width) = .7938 
inch. 1 Palm = 3.1752 inch. 1 Span = 9.5257 inch. 
1 Cubit = 19.0515 inch. 1 Reed = about 9 feet 6 
inches. 

b. Dry Measure of Capacity. If Kab = 1 Omer. 
3£ Omers = 1 Seah. 3 Seahs = 1 Ephah. 10 Ephahs 
= 1 Homer. 1 Homer = 86,696 gall, or lOf bushel. 

c. Liquid Measure of Capacity. 12 log = 1 Hin. 6 
Hin = 1 Bath (ephah) = 8.6696 gall. 

d. Measures of distance. The "pace" was about 
one yard. " Some way " was perhaps about one mile 
and a half according to the statement in Gen. 35: 16. 
" A day's journey " was thirty miles if travel was un- 
impeded, and ten miles if it was a large company. 
Gen. 30:36. 

XXVII.— Diseases Mentioned in the Bible. 

In the Old Testament little is said as to the treat- 
ment, but much as to the prevention of disease. Sani- 
tary laws are laid down in the most specific and de- 
tailed form and the Mosaic sanitary code may be said 
to constitute the basis of modern sanitary legislation. 
Rules relating to food, clothing, personal cleanliness, 
intercourse with the sick and contact with the dead, 



146 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

and various matters connected with social life, are 
given in minute detail. 

There appear to be three different means by which, 
or purposes for which, diseases were inflicted. In some 
cases they appear to have occurred as ordinary calami- 
ties, as in the case of the sun-stroke of the Shunam- 
mite woman's child. In some they were inflicted sim- 
ply as signs, and were of temporary duration, as in 
the case of the leprosy of Moses. In others they were 
evidently brought about by direct divine intervention, 
as a punishment for sin, either of individuals, as in the 
case of Gehazi's leprosy, or of the people at large, as 
in the case of the Sixth Egyptian plague of boils and 
blains. 

There can be no doubt that the Hebrews obtained 
what knowledge of diseases they had mainly from the 
Egyptians. There can scarcely be any doubt also that 
their medical and surgical knowledge was brought to 
greater perfection than is commonly supposed, as re- 
cent Egyptian discoveries show that such delicate 
operations as that necessitated for cataract in the eye 
were successfully performed about 2000 B. C. by the 
Egyptians. 

The following is a summary of the diseases men- 
tioned in the Old Testament. 

1. The Disease of Leprosy. 

a. The Biblical pathology of the disease is furnished 
in Lev. Chs. 13 and 14. 

b. The Hebrew name for the disease is Saraath, 
from a root word whose primary meaning is to pros- 
trate, to throw or cast down, and is referred to diseases 
that so do. The Greek and Latin term is lepra whence 
we have leprosy. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 147 

e. A distinction is to be observed, viz. between 
lepra vulgaris or psoriasis, and true leprosy or ele- 
phantiasis Qraicorum. The former is a curable, non- 
contagious skin disease, which in early time was 
confounded in name with leprosy. The term leprosy 
is now properly restricted to the disease called ele- 
phantiasis Grsecorum, or the true leprosy of the Bible. 

d. The Biblical disease of leprosy, elephantiasis 
Gra3Corum, is one of the most formidable and hopeless 
of all known maladies. Among its earlier symptoms 
there is a loss of nervous sensibility and the appear- 
ance of circular spots or irregular blotches on diiferent 
parts of the body. The spots gradually become darker, 
thickened and rough. Sometimes the blotches turn 
white. The spots generally coincide with the distribu- 
tion of the nerves. As the disease advances the 
numbness and white decay increase in many cases 
while the joints of the members are dislocated and fall 
off. 

e. The terms used in the Book of Leviticus to de- 
note the appearances or signs of the Levitical disease 
are, a rising or swelling, a scab or gathering, a bright 
spot, a somewhat dark (spot), quick raw flesh, a boil 
or inflamed sore, a dry scall or scurf, a freckled spot 
or white skin, eruption, while throughout the term "a 
plague," i. e. a stroke or smiting occurs. But from 
the description of the disease in these thirteenth and 
fourteenth chapters of Leviticus it would seem that the 
term leprosy was employed as a generic term, as other 
words are used to denote, if not varieties, at all events 
particular aspects of the disease. Besides certain 
symptoms are described, on seeing which, and after 
watching their course, the priest declares the patient 



148 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

to be clean or unclean, as the case may be. Thus note 
Lev. 13: 12-14 (R. V.) where we are told that if the 
" leprosy cover all the skin of him that hath the plague 
from his head even to his feet, as far as appeareth to 
the priest, then the priest shall look; and, behold, if 
the leprosy have covered all his flesh, he shall pro- 
nounce him clean that hath the plague; it is all turned 
white; he is clean. But whensoever raw flesh appear- 
eth in him, he shall be unclean." According to some 
the former description is that of lepra vulgaris, and 
therefore the person is pronounced clean ; while in the 
last case the ' ' raw flesh " is a sign of true leprosy and 
therefore the person is pronounced unclean. Accord- 
ing to others, the last point in the above description 
(raw flesh), seems to indicate a complication of an 
otherwise non-contagious disease, and therefore the 
person is pronounced unclean. 

/. The earliest Biblical references to and cases of the 
disease are as follows : Moses, Ex. 4:6. Miriam, Num. 
12:10. Naaman and Gehazi, 2 Ki. Ch. 5. Uzziah, 
2 Chr. 26 : 19-21. The four lepers at the gate of Sam- 
aria, 2 Ki. 7:3. 

g. The discovery of the bacillus of leprosy in 1874 
has thrown new light upon the etiology of the disease. 
The fact that this organism is invariably and exclu- 
sivety found in the body of lepers, establishes its 
causal connection with the disease beyond question. 
It is positively affirmed that leprosy never originates 
spontaneously, and that the specific products caused 
by the bacilli alone contain the infectious material by 
which it is propagated from one individual to another. 
The contagiousness of leprosy would therefore seem to 
be a necessary corollary of the demonstration of its 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRH^OLOGY. 149 

parasitic nature. Accordingly, from a scientific stand- 
point, the conception of leprosy as a parasitic disease 
is irreconcilable with the theory of its hereditary trans- 
mission, a fact confirmed by observation and experi- 
ment. As in the case of tuberculosis, with which 
lepros} 7 presents so many analogies, the influence of 
heredity exists, but is probably limited to the creation 
of a predisposition to the disease. 

h. For the sanitary and ceremonial regulations and 
treatment of the disease see Lev. Chs. 13 and 14. 

i. Other cutaneous diseases like lepra vulgaris or 
psoriasis are mentioned in Deut. 28: 27, 35 and are as 
follows: The "botch 5 ' (R. V. " boil "), which is iden- 
tified by some with elephantiasis, and by others with 
carbuncles. " Emerods," that is, hemorrhoidal tu- 
mors. "Scab" (R. V. "Scurvy"), where probably 
the disease meant is malignant psoriasis. " Itch," or 
some cutaneous disease attended by itching and irrita- 
tion, as prurigo. The " sore botch " or " boil " of verse 
35 is probably the same as the " botch " or " boil of 
Egypt." 

2. Plague and Epidemic Diseases. 

a. Several Hebrew words are translated " plague," 
viz. Deber, i. e. destruction, death, applied to pesti- 
lence. Magefa, a stroke, i. e. a plague actively con- 
sidered, a pestilence sent from God. Makkah, also 
from a word meaning to smite, i. e. the act of smiting, 
a blow, a stroke. Nagaa, i. e. to touch, smite, used 
of a spot, mark, cut or the effects of makkah preced- 
ing Nagaf, i. e. to strike, as a blow, a plague of divine 
judgment. 

b. Biblical instances of plagues. In Num. 11:31- 
34 we have an account of the mortality that fol- 



150 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

lowed on the eating of the quails given to satisfy the 
people's lust for flesh. The free eating of quails or any 
bird for a month (verse 20) would doubtless be at- 
tended with injurious and fatal results. It is known 
that the quail eats a berry containing prucic acid, 
and that some indulging largely in quail's flesh have 
contracted prucic acid poisoning with fatal results. 
In Num. 16 : 41-50 just after the destruction of Korah, 
Dathan and Abiram, we read of 14,700 of the people 
being destroyed by a plague. What the plague was we 
are not informed. In 2 Sam. 24: 1-17 is the account of 
David's making choice from the three forms of punish- 
ment offered to him for his numbering of the people. 
He chose the three days' pestilence which resulted in 
the death of 70,000 men. The account accords largely 
with the outbreak and spread of an epidemic disease 
throughout the land. The description in Zech. 14: 12 
if it be not altogether metaphorical may describe an 
army dying of famine. In Ex. 9 : 8-12 the Sixth 
Egyptian plague is described as being that of "boils 
and blains." Boils and carbuncles would probably be 
a better rendering. It was a cutaneous eruption ac- 
companied by inflammation and breaking out. With 
the cattle it was probably what is now known as the 
splenic disease of cattle. In connection with this view, 
the relation of this to the preceding Egyptian plague 
is to be noted. 

c. Fevers. The different names and forms of fevers 
are for the most part given in Deut. 28: 21, 22, where 
we have the following classification. First, " con- 
sumption," which taken with what precedes in verse 
21 may refer to the hopeless, wasting, hectic fever of 
pulmonary and some other diseases. The second, 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 151 

" and with a fever," probably denotes, according to the 
term used, some form of continued or slow fever. The 
third, " and with an inflammation," according to the 
Hebrew and Arabic, probably refers to the rigor and 
following heat of intermittent malarious fever. The 
fourth, " and with fiery heat " or " extreme burning," 
probably denotes some of the various forms of cutan- 
eous inflammation, attended by heat and irritation. In 
Lev. 26 : 16 mention is also made of some of the above. 
The fatal disease of King Jehoram described in 2 Chi. 
21 : 12-19 was doubtless epidemic dysentery. The 
fever and inflammation of the lining membrane of the 
bowels which attend that disease are often of a very 
severe character, and marked by such discharges from 
the bowels as to lead a superficial observer to think 
that the bowels themselves are cast out. 

3. Diseases of the Eye. 

The special observances with regard to the blind that 
are mentioned in the Old Testament, would indicate 
that they were a numerous class at the time of the 
Exodus. Indeed it is well known that ophthalmic dis- 
ease and blindness have always been very common in 
the East, and are so still. Egyptian ophthalmia has 
long been known as one of the most severe and de- 
structive forms of inflammation of the eye. Two gen- 
eral kinds of ophthalmic diseases are mentioned in the 
Old Testament, viz. : 

a. Inflammation. Lev. 26:16; Zech. 14:12. 

b. Cataract. Lev. 21:20; Zech. 11:17. 

The sources of ophthalmic diseases mentioned in the 
Old Testament are : 
a. Miraculous. 
1). Congenital. 



152 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

c. Natural causes; chiefly contagion, and such at- 
mospheric conditions as lead to the contraction of colds. 
Biblical instances are : 

a. The men of Sodom. Gen. 19: 11. 

b. The Syrian army. 2 Ki. 6 : 18. 

4. Diseases of the Xervous System. 

a. Lunacy and Demoniacal possession. Whether 
there is in our day such a thing as demoniacal posses- 
sion, in the sense in which it was understood in Bible 
times, is difficult to say. Lunacy there is, and in the 
manifestations of many cases of lunacy there is room 
for the inquiry as to whether Satanic agency has not 
some part therein. 

b. King Saul's disease described in 1 Sam. 16:14 
and what follows, was doubtless melancholia. 

c. The disease of Xebuchadnezzar as described in 
Dan. 4 : 29-37 was doubtless insanity. 

5. Diseases of Individuals in the Old Testament. 

a. Disease of Job. From the description given and 
statements made throughout the Book of Job we must 
conclude that it was the fatal, loathsome disease of true 
leprosy, or elephantiasis Grascorum, that afflicted Job. 

b. Hezekiah's disease. 2 Ki. 20:1-11; 2 Chr. 
32 : 24; Isa. 38 : 1—39 : 1. From the remedy applied it 
seems to have been a carbuncle. To say this does not 
in the least detract from the miraculous nature of the 
recovery. 

c. Jeroboam's disease. 1 Ki. 13:4-6. Was doubt- 
less paralysis, probably arising from embolism, and 
the muscular wasting following on embolism. Embol- 
ism, i. e. the blocking of an artery by a clot occuring 
suddenly. 

d. Disease of the Shunammite's Son. 2 Ki. 4: 18-37. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 153 

From the description it was evidently a case of sun- 
stroke, or of sudden meningitis (inflammation of the 
membranes of the brain) supervening in a delicate 
child. 

e. Disease of King Jehoram, epidemic dysentery. 
See above. 

/. Disease of King Saul, melancholia. See above. 

g. Disease of Nebuchadnezzar, insanity. See above. 



II. CIVIL ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS. 
XXVIII.— Forms of Government. 

1. Family Government. The basis and beginning 
of human government was family government. 
Gen. 18:19. 

%. Patriarchal Government. From family govern- 
ment sprang patriarchal government. The patriarch 
was the father of his race. His authority was not 
only civil, but absolute and universal. 

3. Tribal Government. As families multiplied and 
grew into tribes it became necessary to make new 
provisions. On settling in Egypt the tribes of Israel 
retained in the main the patriarchal form of govern- 
ment, and accordingly were known as the family or 
house of Israel. But there was a genealogical sub- 
division into tribes, families, households or fathers' 
houses, and individuals, the last i. e. individuals in- 
cluding the members of single families, viz. husband, 
wife and children. This division of the nation is 
brought out in connection with the account of Achan's 
[11] 



154 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

sin, Josh. 7:14-18, and also in connection with 
Gideon's call, Judg. 6 : 15. In tribal government 
the head of each family, and the father of each house- 
hold was supreme within his own circle, while the 
whole tribe as such obeyed its prince, who originally 
was the first-born son of its founder. 

4. The Eldership. The term "elder," applied first 
to the aged, then to an office filled by the aged, came 
finally to designate almost solely an office. The elder- 
ship was a ruling class including to a large extent the 
heads of tribes and families. The title "elder" was 
given to them when tribal and genealogical distinctions 
were less in view and the people as a whole were in 
consideration. Ex. 3:16, 18; 4:29; Josh. 24:31. 

5. Representative Government. During the stay in 
the wilderness the details in the administration of jus- 
tice became too burdensome for Moses alone, and he 
therefore appointed seventy elders to be "rulers of 
thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and 
rulers of tens." The official dut3 T assigned these rulers 
was to "judge the people at all seasons." Cases too 
difficult for them were to be appealed to Moses. These 
rulers w 7 ere chosen out of the existing organization of 
the eldership. Most of the public business continued 
to be transacted by the eldership. After the settle- 
ment in Canaan, it was from this bod} T , as previously 
in the case of the seventy elders, that all new officials 
were selected. The} 7 not only continued to act as na- 
tional representatives when necessary, but also as local 
rulers and magistrates. 

6. The Shoterim or "Officers." From the significa- 
tion of the term it would seem that the first duty of 
these officials was to act as scribes or registrars, keep 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 155 

ing the genealogical tables, etc. Afterwards they per- 
formed other duties. They acted as overseers under 
the Egyptian task-masters; as officers in military af- 
fairs and adjutants to Joshua; as functionaries in con- 
nection with the judiciary second only to the judges; 
as officials occupying stations of power in the kingdom. 

7. Government by Judges. The Land having been 
possessed, and notwithstanding the excellent code of 
laws inherited, there were serious difficulties constantly 
arising between the tribes, and aggravated and re- 
peated religious relapses from the Lord on the part of 
the people whereby they showed themselves to be 
poorly prepared for that self-government implied in 
the Theocracy. Hence the office of Judge was created. 
The authority of the Judges was limited in time and 
scope. They were not strictly rulers, and with most 
of them the office of Judge was subordinated to that of 
military leader. The elders still wielded the strongest 
and most permanent influence in civil affairs. For a 
Chronological Table of the Judges see Book of Judges 
under Special Introduction Outlines. 

8. The Levites. According to the Mosaic law the 
Levites were scattered among the tribes. Some of the 
religious usages required by the law continued to be 
observed. The national sanctuary was maintained, 
and for the most part at Shiloh. See § 33, Sacred 
Persons. 

0. Legislation Anterior to the Monarchy. The 
Mosaic code of laws is both civil and ecclesiastical. 
These laws cover not only civic and social duties, but 
they all have a direct ethical and spiritual bearing. 
These laws are wonderfully comprehensive and com- 
plete, variously and fully treating as they do of idola- 



156 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

try; the bearing of false witness; the removal of land- 
marks; the punishment of unchastity; the treatment of 
Canaanitish and other heathen cities; the establish- 
ment of a judiciary; the number of witnesses required 
in capital cases; the prohibition of magic arts; the 
treatment of Hebrew and foreign servants; the usages 
to be observed in matters relating to food, mourning 
and blood revenge ; the legal process in the detection 
of a murderer; the course to be pursued in cases of 
public execution by impaling; the disobedience of 
children; laws relative to the property of a brother 
Israelite; kindness to animals; protection of life; regu- 
lation of dress; disenfranchisement; fugitive slaves; 
prostitution; usury; divorce; man-stealing; gleaning; 
marriage ; immodesty ; weights and measures; punish- 
ments; diseases; laws of inheritance and laws of health, 
etc. 

10. The Kingdom. In Deut. 17:14-20, the Mosaic 
code anticipates the kingdom. Full instructions are 
given for the choice of a king, his title, his income, his 
government of his household, his relative position 
among his brethren, his successor, and the conditions 
under which he shall reign. He was to be one whom 
Jehovah should choose, and he was to be anointed by 
Jehovah's prophets. He was to be a shepherd to his 
people, and like his people he was to be subordinate 
to the laws of his country. The government was still 
to remain theocratic, and Jehovah its true king. 

11. Inuauguration. At his inauguration the king, 
surrounded by soldiers, was conducted to a public 
square or court of the temple where the ceremonial of 
anointing by the high priest took place. This anoint- 
ing was in addition to the anointing done by the 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCH/EOLOGY. 157 

prophet. The prophet's anointing was merely a sym- 
bolical intimation that the person thus anointed should 
eventually ascend the throne. 2 Ki. 9 : 3. After the 
anointing by the high priest the crown was put on the 
king's head and a copy of the law put in his hand. 
2 Sam. 19:10; 1 Ki. 1:39, etc. 

12. Succession. The king must be an Israelite. 
Generally he named his own successor. Otherwise the 
law of the first-born had its influence. 2 Chr. 21 : 3. 
During the minority of a king his mother sometimes 
held the regency. 1 Ki. 2:19. 

13. Functions and privileges. The king acted as 
commander-in-chief of the army, and performed the 
duties of a supreme magistrate. He gave decisions on 
appeal cases, as well as on cases coming to him di- 
rectly. Apparently lie had no special jurisdiction over 
the national judiciary. He could not repeal laws, but 
was bound to execute them, especially the laws against 
idolatrous worship. With the ordinary duties of the 
priesthood he had nothing to do, although it was some- 
times his privilege to nominate the high priest, pro- 
vided he kept within the line of Aaronic descent. On 
special occasions he might proclaim a fast. Moreover 
the kings were continually under the restraints im- 
posed upon them by the order of the prophets, whom 
they counseled before every great undertaking. 

14. Revenues and disbursements. The revenues 
varied. Much of it consisted of " presents " and trib- 
ute. Some of the kings possessed considerable real 
estate and large herds. The people were strictly as- 
sessed only upon extraordinary occasions. Some of 
the principal sources of the royal income were, — the 
royal estates; the royal flocks; a nominal tenth of the 



158 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

produce of corn-land, vineyards and sheep; a tribute 
from merchants passing through Hebrew territory; 
presents from subjects; tribute from vassals; income 
from commercial enterprises; the spoils of war; com- 
pulsory labor. As an item of daily expense note 1 Ki. 
4:22, 23. 

15. The Royal Court. The king's household was 
large. Among the officers were the Chronicler, who 
recorded the events of history, like Jehoshaphat ; the 
Secretary, who answered letters, petitions and drew up 
edicts in the king's name, like Elihoreph and Ahijah; 
the Captain of the Host, who was the general com- 
manding, like Joab; the Chief of the body-guard, an 
officer of the highest rank to whom was intrusted all 
delicate and dangerous commissions, like Benaiah; the 
officer who was over the house, or chief steward, like 
Ahishar; the royal counselor, like Ahithophel; the 
king's friend, a more intimate adviser and companion 
than the counselor, like Zabud; the officer of finance 
who attended to the raising of levies for the public 
service, like Adoniram, etc. 

16. The Disruption and Fall of the Kingdom. With 
the accession (973 B. C. ) of Rehoboam, son and suc- 
cessor of Solomon, the kingdom became divided into 
the Northern Kingdom of the Ten Tribes with its capi- 
tal at Samaria, and the Southern Kingdom composed 
of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin with its capital 
at Jerusalem. The Northern Kingdom lasted about 
250 years, when Samaria capitulated to Sargon and a 
large number of Israelites were carried awaj^ as cap- 
tives to Assyria. Less than a century and a half later 
the Southern Kingdom of Judah fell and also went 
into captivity. The captivity lasted until the accession 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 159 

of Cyrus to the throne of Babylon, B. C. 536. By him 
and his successors the Jews were allowed to return to 
Palestine. The first company, numbering about 50,- 
000, returned under the leadership of Zerubbabel, who 
was appointed governor by the Persian monarch. 
Under Artaxerxes I. twenty-eight years later, a second 
companj' returned under the leadership of Ezra. Ne- 
hemiah came fourteen years later, B. C. 444. 

17. Government after the Exile. Most of the cap- 
tives who returned belonged to the tribes of Judah and 
Benjamin. A few belonged to the Ten Tribes. Dur- 
ing the Persian period, 536-333 B. C. the province of 
which Judrea formed a part was under an officer called 
a satrap. Smaller districts, like Judrea itself, were 
ruled by governors, like Zerubbabel, Ezra and Kehe- 
miah. Tribute was paid to the Persian monarchs. 

XXIX.— Judicial Courts and Processes. 

1. At the first judicial sentence was pronounced by 
the ruler, who was also judge, and who acted as God's 
vicegerent. Deut. 19 : 16, 17. 

2. As the people, and consequently judicial cases 
multiplied, Moses appointed a Court of Seventy, elders, 
to consider less important cases. Those composing 
this court were named by the people and inducted into 
office by Moses. While the first duty of this court was 
to act on judicial cases, still they also constituted a 
military board, as they are spoken of as being heads 
over tens, fifties, hundreds, etc. The only appeal 
from this court was to Moses, to whom the case was 
carried up by the judge, not the people. 

3. When the above method (2) of judicial procedure 



160 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

Lad fulfilled its purpose another became adopted and 
is described in Dent. 16:18-20; 17:8-13. Instead of 
the Court of Seventy, there are judges and assistants 
who like the Court of Seventy are to be selected from 
the elders of the people. From this tribunal cases of 
appeal were carried to the priest or judge of the time. 

4. The next change in the judiciary occurred during 
Jehoshaphat's reign (B. C. 912-895), and is described 
in 2 Chr. 19 : 5-8. This court was different from the 
preceding court in that it was composed of priests and 
Levites instead of Levitical priests alone; in that it 
had a civil and ecclesiastical head acting at one and 
the same time, instead of independently; and in that 
the civil head was represented by a family chief of 
Judah (an entirely new officer), and was supported by 
the chief of the fathers of Israel. 

5. In dispensing justice legal processes followed the 
Mosaic law. When the Mosaic law did not furnish 
rule or precedent it was left to the impartiality of the 
judge. A thorough and detailed examination of a case 
was necessary. In capital crimes there must be two or 
three witnesses. Perjury was severely punished. 

6. Trials generally took place near the principal 
gate of the city. In Jerusalem they were held in front 
of the temple; sometimes the court of the palace, when 
the king was to pronounce sentence. The trial was 
public and for the most part conducted orally. The 
litigants appeared in person and pleaded their own 
case before the judge. In cases of capital crimes the 
complainant stood at the right of the accused. Testi- 
mony must consist of facts. Circumstantial evidence 
was of value simply to help the judge when he had 
nothing else to go by. In the case of a disobedient 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRHJ20LOGY. 161 

son the complaint of both parents was sufficient evi- 
dence. Witnesses were put under oath. Lev. 5:1. 

7. In reaching a decision it was not permitted to 
torture a witness. Casting the lot was sometimes 
practiced in early times to obtain a decision. Prov. 
16:33. 

8. Decisions were handed down both orally and in 
writing. The penalty was inflicted at once and in the 
presence of the judges, unless it was a capital crime. 
The death penalty was inflicted by the community. 
The usual method of putting to death was by stoning. 
In the case of manslaughter the guilty person was de- 
livered to the Goel, or avenger of blood for execution. 
Kings could at once put to death those so condemned. 
The prophets complained of the corruption of justice 
by kings and judges. Cases relating to property, 
rights, etc., were generally settled out of court, by 
mutual agreement. 

9. Two things served to modify penalties. On the 
one hand the institutions and customs handed down 
by the past gave a peculiar form to some penalties. 
On the other hand, the fact that the national govern- 
ment was theocratic, rendered some punishments more 
severe than otherwise might be expected. 

10. The death penalty was inflicted for various 
crimes, viz. wilful murder; perjury that endangered 
the life of another; smiting, cursing, or persistent re- 
bellion against one's parents ; man-stealing ; marital un- 
faithfulness and other similar sins; idolatry; witch- 
craft; pretending to prophetic inspiration; Sabbath 
breaking; defying the decisions of the courts. The 
enormity of a crime was increased by the fact that the 
nation was theocratic. The death penalty, generally 



162 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

inflicted by stoning, was sometimes inflicted by sword 
or spear. Sometimes the body after stoning was 
burned or hung. 

11. In case of homicide, the next of kin to the mur- 
dered man slew the murderer wherever, found.-. This 
leading to abuses, Moses provided for six cities of 
refuge, three on each side of the Jordan, to any one of 
which the person suspected of murder might flee. 
Here he was safe till his case was tried. Then, if 
guilty, he was handed over to the next of kin for exe- 
cution. 

12. Other forms of punishment were the following: 
Mutilation, which was very rare, Deut. 25:11, 12; 
flogging, which was quite common, and administered 
by a rod or whip of leathern thongs ; fines, mostly for 
offences against property, and generally ranging from 
one hundred shekels down ; and imprisonment, which 
was rare, as a method of punishment, before the exile, 
more common after that. A peculiar mode of punish- 
ment was the ban, applied both to persons and things, 
and by which the person or thing was devoted to God, 
originally in the sense that it was to be destroyed. In- 
destructible things, like silver and gold, were confis- 
cated for the sanctuary. During the exilian period, 
the ban took the form of excommunication. 

13. In regard to property laws: — the land of Canaan 
having been divided among the twelve tribes, there 
was assigned to each family in a tribe, as its own, a 
proportionate part of this inheritance. Two principal 
laws underlay this ownership of land. First, it was 
authenticated by God, in whom the real proprietorship 
inhered; and, second, it could not be permanently 
alienated or lost, but its possession was insured to the 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 1G3 

family as long as the Hebrew common wealth lasted. 
In ease of any voluntary disposition of land on the part 
of the owner, it necessarily reverted to him again in 
the year of jubilee. The year of jubilee followed the 
seventh successive sabbatic year, that is, was cele- 
brated every fifty years. On the year of jubilee, as on 
sabbatic years, the land was left uncultivated, but what 
it spontaneously produced was free to all. The year 
of jubilee effected also the enfranchisement of all 
slaves, and all servitude for the liquidation of debt. 
From the above it will be seen that another factor en- 
tering into the valuation of land was its proximity to 
the year of jubilee. In walled towns real estate sold 
bj^ an owner must be redeemed within a year if at all. 
On the other hand, Levitical cities and all property in 
them came under the law of the year of jubilee. Land 
in the suburbs of such cities could not be disposed of 
in any manner. If a man dedicated property to the 
Lord he could redeem it before the year of jubilee by 
adding a fifth of its value as reckoned by the number 
of crops it would produce before that time. On the 
principle that God was the real owner of all land, the 
occupant was simply a tenant who must account to 
God. Hence the offerings of the land to God, to the 
poor, and for the priests and Levites.. 

14. In earlier times business transactions involving 
the transfer of property were conducted orally ; later 
written contracts, prepared in duplicates, and signed 
by principals and witnesses, came into use. 

15. The Mosaic law furnished a number of enact- 
ments for the security of property, as over against the 
infringement of landmarks, the injury of crops, 
herds, etc. 



164 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

XXX,— Military Affairs. 

1. According to the Old Testament, war was to be 
undertaken only on God's command ; was to be waged 
only against those who proved themselves the persist- 
ent enemies of God and his people; was to be com- 
menced with religions rites; and was to be conducted 
under strict rules of discipline written down in detail 
on the national statutes. 

2. There was a difference between the Canaanitish 
wars of extermination, and the wars waged by the He- 
brews subsequent to that. The war against the 
Ca.naanites was offensive; was a war against heathen- 
ism in its most pronounced form, was a war against 
persistent idolatry and idolaters, from which the land 
must be freed if the Hebrews, as God's people, were to 
occupy it. After that all the wars waged by Israel 
were to be and were of a defensive character. 

3. The Origin and Constitution of the Army. The 
division of the people in the wilderness into companies 
of tens, fifties, hundreds, etc, , having reference origin- 
ally to civil matters, became afterwards the basis of a 
military organization. The rulers of the companies 
acted as "captains" and " officers of the host," as in 
Num. 31 : 14. All males over twenty years of age were 
liable to military duty. Lists of such persons were 
kept. Those who kept these lists, i. e. the Shoterim, 
had the power to retain in or dismiss from service ; to 
divide the army into companies and battalions; to 
bring them into battle front before the enemy; and to 
appoint the leaders. A priest was always present at 
the mustering of the army to encourage the soldiery, 
and assure them that the Lord fought with them against 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 165 

the enemy. At first the army was composed entirely of 
infantry. David was the first to make a change, and 
Solomon the first to establish a distinct cavalry. 

4. The Hebrew Arms in Canaan. The army was sum- 
moned by messengers, by a trumpet, or by signal-fiags. 
In early times only a sufficient number of men to 
accomplish the purpose were called out, and these from 
adjacent tribes. In early times also, before any mili- 
tary operations were undertaken, counsel was asked of 
God through a prophet or through the XJrim and 
Thummin. Sacrifices were sometimes offered. Till 
David's time the ark went with the army. First in the 
time of Saul we find a small standing army. This was 
gradually increased in later periods. Over the whole 
army was a commander-in-chief. 

5. The Battle. Before the battle a conference was 
generally held to reach a settlement without a resort 
to arms. Arbitration failing war was formally de- 
clared. The army was then put in battle order, the 
rear being protected. Various methods of attack were 
adopted. Fighting was mostly hand-to-hand. Victor- 
ies were celebrated. The beginning and close of an 
engagement was signalized by the blast of a trumpet. 

6. Weapons. Among weapons of defence the shield 
is most frequently mentioned. It was of two kinds; 
one small and light, the other sufficiently large to pro- 
tect the whole body. The material was for the most 
part hide, sometimes ornamented, Kah. 2 : 3. When 
not used the shield was covered and kept in an arsenal. 
Shields were sometimes displayed as signs of posses- 
sion, of power, and carried in processions. The helmet 
is rarely mentioned in the Old Testament. Uzziah, 
B. C. 808, was the first to provide the Israelitish army 



166 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

with helmets. The helmet was generally a leather cap 
covered with strips of metal. The coat of mail was 
a garment like a shirt covered with metal scales. 
Greaves, or armor for the legs, aie only mentioned in 
the Old Testament in connection with the account of 
Goliath. Assyrian soldiers wore an armored stocking 
or leathern boot mentioned in Isa. 9:5. The principal 
offensive weapons were the bow and arrow, and sling 
for distances, the sword, spear and lance for hand-to- 
hand fighting. Bows were made of wood, copper and 
bronze. The Benjaminites were noted as bowmen. 
Strings were made from the intestines of animals. 
Arrows were of wood and reed, tipped with metal or 
stone. The sling is first mentioned in Judg. 20:16 
where again the Benjaminites are prominently men- 
tioned. There were companies of slingers in the army. 
The sling was a strip of leather or other strong mater- 
ial, wide in the middle, narrow at the ends. The 
sword was both straight and curved, long and short, 
single and double-edged. The material was generally 
iron. The hilt was ornamented, the sword was carried 
in a sheath, and worn on the left side. The spear like 
the bow was carried both by officers and common sol- 
diers. Two kinds of spears are mentioned, the differ- 
ence being in weight and length, the one used for 
thrusting, the other for hurling. The javelin was like 
the spear only lighter. Battle-axes and hammers were 
also used. 

7. The Chariot, — was two-wheeled, drawn by at 
least two horses, or, if more, they were still harnessed 
abreast. The body, often ornamented, was placed on 
the axle-tree, the weapons being attached to the sides 
of the chariot. The chariot was generally occupied by 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 1(57 

the charioteer and the warrior. The horses were richly 
decked. Entrance to the chariot was from behind. 

s. Cities were strongly walled and massively gated 
for defence in time of siege. In addition to a wall or 
walls, a moat or ditch surrounding the city rendered 
assault more difficult. Elevated spots of ground were 
taken advantage of. Fortresses were also built in out- 
lying districts. A city refusing to surrender was 
assaulted or siege laid to it. Walls were scaled by 
means of ladders, etc. to overpower the defenders. 
In case of siege, communication was first cut off. 
Offensive operations were carried on by means of 
undermining, the battering ram and the movable 
tower. Isa. 23:13. The besieged victualled the city, 
strengthened the walls, and replied to the attack by 
arrows, sticks, boiling water or oil, and large stones. 
Sieges were often of long duration, e. g. that of Sama- 
ria by the Assyrians three years, and that of Jerusalem 
by the Babylonians a year and a half. 



III. -SACRED ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS. 

XXXI.— Sacred Seasons. 

1. The feasts of the Hebrew year instituted to be 
observed by Israel receive treatment in the following 
passages:— Ex. 12:1-28, 43-51; 13:3-10; 23:14-19; 
34:18-26; Lev. Ch. 23; Num. 9:5-14 and Chs. 28, 29; 
Deut. 10: 1-1?. The Book of Leviticus gives a list of 
all the festivals of the Hebrew year, with an account 
of the special ceremonies accompanying them, while 



168 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

the Book of Numbers tells what sacrificial offerings 
were appointed for each. 

2. There is a twofold classification of the Hebrew 
feasts. It is to be remembered that the passover and 
the feast of unleavened bread, being celebrated at the 
same time are regarded as one. These three festivals 
then, — the Passover including the feast of unleavened 
bread ; Pentecost or the feast of harvest ; and Taber- 
nacles or the feast of ingathering, are distinguished 
from the other feasts in that they could only be ob- 
served at the central place of worship where it was 
necessary for every male Israelite to appear in order to 
celebrate them. In this way these three annual feasts 
came to be called Haggim or "pilgrimage feasts," in 
distinction from the others, the so-called Moadim = 
set times. 

3. All the Hebrew feasts are closely connected with 
the history of the Exodus, with the agricultural year, 
and with the institution of the Sabbath. Thus the 
Passover, with which the list of feasts naturally begins, 
looks back to the exemption from death of the first- 
born of the Israelites when those of the Egyptians were 
slain. The agricultural year likewise modified to some 
extent the number, order and character of these feasts. 
So the Passover, the first feast historically, came at the 
time of barley harvest with which the harvest season 
in Palestine opened ; and Pentecost, seven weeks after 
the Passover, came at the beginning of wheat harvest. 
Finally, there was a still more intimate connection 
between these feasts and the institution of the Sab- 
bath. The Sabbath was the standard by which the 
entire series of festivals was to be governed and char- 
acterized. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 169 

4. The Sabbath. The Sabbath is one of the primi- 
tive institutions of the race, and a fundamental institu- 
tion with the Hebrews. In Gen. 2:2, 3 we have its 
consecration and reason for its observance, observance 
by all. Afterward an added and a national reason was 
assigned in the decalogue for its observance, viz. be- 
cause Jehovah had brought them out of the land of 
Egypt. Moreover the Sabbath was the unit of meas- 
ure giving a sacred character to every other division of 
time. The period of the week, having its culmination 
in the seventh day, was made the basis of the system. 
The Hebrew feasts as a whole, and individually were 
arranged with reference to the recurrence of the Sab- 
bath. Accordingly the feasts of unleavened bread 
and tabernacles lasted each seven daj^s. Each began 
on the fifteenth of the month, i. e. at the end of two 
weeks and when the moon was full. Pentecost occurred 
seven weeks after the Passover, i. e. seven periods of 
seven days each. As the seventh day was sacred, so 
was the seventh month, and seventh year, i. e. the Sab- 
batic year. And so again the fiftieth year, which fol- 
lowed seven periods of seven years each, was also 
sacred, viz. the year of Jubilee. 

p. The Passover. The Jewish ecclesiastical year 
opened with the celebration of the Passover, which 
was appointed for the fourteenth of Nisan, the old 
Hebrew month of Abib, and corresponding nearly to 
our month of April. The observance of this feast 
commemorated the passing over by the angel of death 
of the first-born of the Israelites when the first-born 
of the Egyptians was destroyed. Ex. 12:13. On the 
tenth day of the month a lamb was to be chosen by 
[12] 



1?0 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

each family of Israel, or if the family was too small 
two or more families might unite in the celebration. 
The lamb was to be an unblemished male of a year 
old, and taken either from the sheep or the goats. It 
was to be killed on the evening of the fourteenth, and 
eaten the same night, the flesh having been roasted or 
boiled. With it might be eaten unleavened bread and 
bitter herbs ( § 16: 2), but nothing more. Not a bone 
of the animal was to be broken, and the parts not 
eaten were to be burned the same night. The manner 
of eating the Passover is given in Ex. 12: 11. A for- 
eigner could not participate in the Passover unless he 
had been circumcised, and no part of the animal could 
be carried outside the house where the celebration 
took place. After its first celebration several modifi- 
cations took place in the manner of the observance of 
the Passover, modifications looking forward to the 
residence in Canaan. Thus it was prescribed that all 
males at least should go up to the national sanctuary 
to eat the Passover. At the same time each was to 
provide some offering. In the first celebration the 
blood of the slain animal was sprinkled by means of a 
branch of hyssop on the lintel, or upper casing, of the 
door of each house and its two posts, where the cele- 
bration took place, whereas after that the blood was 
sprinkled on the altar, and there the fat was consumed. 
In connection with its first observance a journey was 
undertaken the following day, after that the following 
day was, like the Sabbath, kept holy. 

6. The Feast of Unleavened Bread. The feast of 
unleavened bread followed immediately the passover. 
Indeed the paschal lamb was eaten at the beginning of 
the first day of the feast of unleavened bread, the fif- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 171 

teenth of Nisan, the Hebrew day being reckoned from 
evening to evening. Observed simultaneously the two 
feasts came to be called by the same name. The leg- 
islation relative to the feast of unleavened bread is 
found in Ex. 12:15-20; 13:3-10; Lev. 23:6; Num. 
28: 17; Dent. 16: 8. The feast receives its name from 
the fact that only unleavened bread was permitted to be 
eaten during that time, viz. from the fifteenth to the 
twenty-first of the month Nisan. Its name, the "bread 
of affliction," has no reference to the bread, but is 
simply symbolical of the sufferings in Egypt, and the 
haste with which Egypt was left. The feast was one 
of joy like the passover. The manner in which the 
day of this feast was to be observed is laid down in 
Num. 28:19-24. Besides the sacrifices there spec- 
ified there were to be also individual offerings accord- 
ing to Ex. 23 : 15. The first day of the feast was to be 
kept especially sacred, was therefore called " Sabbath," 
and is referred to in Lev. 23:11. The following day 
a sheaf of barley was waved in the sanctuary announc- 
ing the opening of harvest, all harvesting of grain be- 
fore that time being unlawful. 

7. The Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost. Treating the 
passover and the feast of unleavened bread as cue, the 
second great pilgrimage feast was the feast of weeks, 
or pentecost. It came fifty days after the feast of 
unleavened bread, hence called pentecost; and this 
period embraced seven weeks of seven days each, hence 
called weeks. The count is made from the day the 
barley sheaf was waved in the sanctuary. This feast 
was also called the " feast of harvest," as it opened the 
wheat harvest with which the whole harvest of grain 
drew near its close. It was also called "day of first 



172 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

fruits " from the requirement to make in it an offering 
of bread from the wheat. The offerings for pentecost 
were two young bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs of 
the first year, with their meal offerings, and a kid of 
the goats for a sin offering. These were additional to 
the regular daily sacrifices, and to the sacrifices made 
in connection with the presentation of the new flour 
which was in the form of two wheaten loaves or cakes, 
these sacrifices being seven lambs of the first year, one 
young bullock and two rams, for a burnt offering, — 
together with their appropriate meal offering, — a kid of 
the goats for a sin offering, and two lambs of the first 
year for a sacrifice of peace offerings. The wave loaves 
of pentecost were leavened, as was all bread offered in 
connection with thank offerings. Being public offer- 
ings, one each of the two wave loaves and two lambs 
was given to the high priest, the rest being the share 
of the other priests of the sanctuary. The fat of both 
lambs was consumed on the altar. The remaining 
flesh was eaten at a sacrificial meal within the temple, 
none of it being allowed to be left over beyond the fol- 
lowing midnight. The public sacrifices of this and 
succeeding days were followed also by private individ- 
ual offerings. 

8. The Feast of Tabernacles. The feast of "taber- 
nacles" or "booths" was the last of the pilgrimage 
feasts. Like the passover, it lasted seven days, from 
the fifteenth to the twenty-first of Tishri, the seventh 
month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. It was insti- 
tuted in part to remind the people that their fathers 
had lived in tents in the wilderness, Lev. 23 : 40-43, 
and in part to be an occasion of annual thanksgiving 
after the ingathering of the harvests of the year. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 173 

From its importance it came to be called " the feast," 
and "the feast of Jehovah." An eighth festival day 
followed, but it had a different significance. The peo- 
ple no longer dwelt in booths or tents. The offerings 
and the temple service were changed. It was not 
simply a closing day to the feast of tabernacles, but a 
closing day to all the festivals of the year. But on 
account of its close connection with the feast of tab- 
ernacles, the latter came to be called an eight day feast. 
On the institution and nature of the feast note Lev. 
23:33-43; Num. 29:12-38. Each day of the feast 
had its burnt offering and sin offering. In respect to 
the burnt offering it is noted that from the first day to 
the last, the number of bullocks offered was to be one 
less each day, while the number of lambs and rams 
of a year old was to remain the same. On the first 
day there were sacrificed thirteen bullocks, two rams 
and fourteen lambs, together with the appropriate meal 
offering. As in the case of the other feasts these offer- 
ings were in addition to the daily morning and evening 
sacrifice, and on the Sabbath to the sacrifices for that 
day. The sacrifices of the eighth day were also in- 
creased, while all the sacrifices throughout the week 
were accompanied with trumpet blasts and singing. A 
post-exilian feature of the celebration of the feast was 
the ceremony of bringing water from the pool of Siloam 
to the temple where it was offered amid the chanting 
of the words of Isa. 12: 3. 

9. The New Moon. The tw T o remaining festivals of 
the Mosaic law are those of the New Moon and the 
Atonement. The latter was strictly a fast, the only 
fast required by the Mosaic law. The feast of the New 
Moon is also sometimes called "the feast of trumpets." 



174 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

The trumpets however were not only blown at this 
feast but at others also. Num. 10:10. With the 
exception of the new moon of the seventh month, the 
law required only the offering of special sacrifices and 
the blowing of trumpets on the day of the moon's 
reappearance. The new moon of the seventh month 
was celebrated with an increased number of offerings 
and the blowing of trumpets. After the exile this 
feast partook of the nature of a new year's celebration. 
The appearance of the new moon was ascertained by 
actual observation, not by astronomical calculation. 

10. The Day of Atonement. The day of atonement 
fell on the tenth day of the seventh month. Atoning 
sacrifices were offered for the sins and uncleannesses 
of the people as a whole, and for the purification of 
the temple throughout. Offerings for sin were made 
at other times, but in order to secure to a greater 
extent on the part of the people a due remembrance of 
sins year by year, one entire day of each year was set 
apart for humiliation and confession. Accordingly it 
was a fast instead of a feast, the only fast prescribed. 
On this day alone the services of the sanctuary 
extended into the holy of holies. On other days the 
high priest might or might not participate in the 
services of the temple, but on this day he alone could 
officiate, the other priests simply acting as assistants. 
Moreover the high priest was obliged on this day and 
in certain ceremonies to put off his ordinary golden 
vestments and clothe himself in garments of white 
linen. On this day, and in addition to the daily 
morning and evening sacrifices, there was a burnt 
offering of a ram offered in behalf of the priesthood, a 
young bullock, a ram and seven lambs of the first 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 175 

year, with their meal offering in behalf of the people ; 
a kid of the goats for a sin offering; and the purely 
expiatory sacrifices of the day, viz. a young bullock 
for the priesthood and two goats for the people. Ex. 
30:10; Lev. 16: 1-34; 23: 26-32; Num. 29:7-11. One 
of the two goats was killed and its blood sprinkled on 
the altar; the other, bearing symbolically the sins of 
the people, was sent into the wilderness. One of the 
goats was understood to atone for the people by its 
blood; the other which was said to be " f or Azazel " 
(dismissal), set forth the effects of such atonement — 
symbolized the total removal of guilt. 

11. Purim. The feast of Purim and the feast of 
Dedication were two feasts of later times. The feast 
of Purim, called also the "day of Mordecai" in the 
Apocrypha, fell on the fourteenth and fifteenth of 
Adar, the last month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. 
The feast was established by Mordecai, and commem- 
orated the deliverance of the Jews from the destruction 
threatened by Hainan, prime minister of the Persian 
empire in the reign of Xerxes. The name Purim, 
meaning " lots" was given to the feast because it was 
by lot that Hainan decided to destroy the Jews on the 
thirteenth day of Adar. Esth. 3 : 7-13 ; 9 : 24-27. The 
feast lasted two days. 

12. The Feast of Dedication. This feast dates from 
the reconsecration of the altar and the temple at 
Jerusalem after their defilement by Antiochus Epipha- 
nes. The feast began on the twenty-fifth of Chislev, 
corresponding to December, and lasted eight days. It 
resembled the feast of tabernacles. 



176 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

XXXII.— Sacred Places. 

1. The Tabernacle in General. At Sinai God com- 
manded Israel to prepare a place for his dwelling'. 
The tabernacle was the result. It was the first historic 
sanctuary of Israel. The different names applied to 
the tabernacle and setting forth its character and pur- 
poses are "tent," "tent of meeting," "tent of witness," 
"abode," "sanctuary," "palace," "temple." The 
details of the plan of the tabernacle are given in Ex. 
Chs. 25-31. The record of the actual carrying out of 
the plan of building the tabernacle is furnished in Ex. 
Chs. 35-40. 

2. The Court of the Tabernacle. It was rectangular 
in form, 100 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, the cubit 
being about a foot and a half. It was enclosed by a 
row of wooden pillars on which was hung a canvas 
curtain. Each pillar was five cubits high, and the 
space between them was also five cubits. The diffi- 
culty encountered by some to place sixty pillars (the 
number given in the Bible) around this court with 
twenty on each side and ten on each end, will be 
entirely obviated, if, according to the Oriental method, 
still in practice, they read and count spaces between 
pillars instead of pillars. The sockets of the pillars 
were bronze or copper and the top overlaid with silver. 
The fine-twined linen curtain or screen was hung to 
the pillars by silver rods and hooks. This screen was 
unbroken except at the entrance on the eastern side, 
where there was another curtain twenty cubits wide of 
more elaborate workmanship. In the court of the 
Tabernacle were the altar of burnt offering, the laver, 
and the Tabernacle proper. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 177 

3. The Altar of Burnt Offering. It stood in the 
court, toward the east, in front of the entrance, and 
was a square, hollow structure, measuring three cubits 
high, and five cubits each side, and was built of acacia 
wood overlaid with bronze or copper. Note further 
Ex. 27:1-8; 20:24-26. 

4. The Laver. Stood also in the court between the 
altar of burnt offering and the tabernacle proper. It 
was a round brazen vessel containing the water used 
by the priests in cleansing themselves before entering 
the holy place or offering sacrifice. Ex. 38 : 8. 

5. The Tabernacle Proper. It was a rectangular 
structure thirty cubits long, ten wide and ten high. 
The sides were composed of forty-eight gilded acacia 
wood boards, forty on the north and south sides, eight 
on the west. Note further Ex. 26 : 15-30. One-third 
of the tabernacle inclosure (that on the west side) was 
set apart for the "holy of holies." It contained the 
ark with its furniture, the mercy seat and the tables 
of the law. It was an exact cube, being ten cubits 
broad, long and high. The other two-thirds of the 
space of the tabernacle constituted the "holy place." 
It contained the golden candlestick, the table of shew- 
bread and the altar of incense. 

6. The Holy of Holies. It was separated from the 
holy place by a veil. For description and contents see 
Ex. 26 : 31-37 and above, No. 5. 

7. The Covering of the Tabernacle. It was of four 
kinds. The first covering is described in Ex. 26 : 1-6. 
The second covering, intended to be a tent over the 
tabernacle, was of goat's hair. See further Ex. 26 : 7-13. 
The other two coverings are mentioned in Ex. 26 : 14, 
viz. "rams' skins dyed red, and a covering of sealskins 



178 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

above." Instead of "sealskins" or "badger skins," 
read porpoise skins. (See § 17, Badger.) These two 
coverings probably consisted of an actual tent made 
out of these two kinds of skins and pitched over the 
tabernacle. 

8. The Ark. Within the Holy of Holies was the 
"ark of the covenant," so called because it contained 
the two tables of stone. It was an acacia wood box, 
overlaid throughout with gold, and measuring 24 cubits 
long, \\ cubits high and wide. It was carried by means 
of staves inserted through rings at the four corners. 
Around the top was a gilded rim or moulding, and the 
lid, which was called the " mercy seat," was of solid 
gold. On each end of this lid, and of one piece with 
it, was set the figure of a cherub, made from beaten 
gold. The two cherubim faced inward and covered the 
mercy seat with their wings. This was the most hoi}- 
place of the sanctuary, which the high priest alone 
could enter, once in the year, and then only amidst 
clouds of incense. Ex. 25 : 22. Besides the tables of 
stone, there were at one time by the ark a pot of manna, 
and Aaron's rod that budded. These were probably lost 
when the ark was in the possession of the Philistines, 
and the ark itself probably destroyed when Nebuchad- 
nezzar took Jerusalem. 

9. The Alter of Incense. It was nearest the veil 
just outside the Holy of Holies. Being overlaid with 
gold it was also called the " golden altar." See further 
Ex. 30:1-10, 34-38. 

10. The Table of Shew-bread. For its construction 
and vessels see Ex. 25 : 23-30. Every Sabbath twelve 
loaves of bread, covered with frankincense, called 
"shew" or "presence" bread were placed upon the 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRH^EOLOGY. 179 

table. On the following Sabbath they were removed, 
and others substituted. The incense was burned, the 
bread eaten in the sanctuary by the priests. 

11. The Golden Candlestick. Its description is 
given in Ex. 25:31-40. The holy place being with- 
out natural light, the immediate object of the candle- 
stick was to give light to the priests in the performance 
of their duties. Doubtless it had also a symbolical 
significance. Isa. 10: 17, etc. See further Ex. 27: 20, 21. 

12. The Temple of Solomon. David for the most 
part collected the materials out of which his son and 
successor, Solomon, built the temple. Solomon began 
its erection in the fourth year of his reign, he having 
ascended the throne 1013 B. C. He was greatly helped 
in the building by Hiram, King of Tyre. The temple 
was built on Mount Moriah, which lay eastward from 
Mount Zion and originally outside of the city's walls. 
It was completed in seven years. The ground plan of 
the temple resembled the tabernacle, but with double 
its dimensions. The main building was similar^ 
divided into the holy place and the holy of holies. 
The entrance to the temple was from the east between 
two pillars named, the one on the right Jachin, the other 
Boaz. A row of chambers three stories high was 
attached to the outside wall of the main building on 
three sides. The temple and probably the chambers 
had windows, but in the former for the purpose of 
ventilation rather than light, light being obtained from 
the golden candelabrum. The temple, like the taber- 
nacle, had an enclosure or court around it, and called 
the " inner court," the " court of the priests" and the 
" upper court." There was an outer court also sur- 
rounded by a wall. The walls of the temple were of 



180 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

stone. The roof was made of beams and boards of 
cedar. The interior walls were wainscoted with boards 
of cedar, exquisitely carved, and overlaid with gold. 
The floor was of cypress wood overlaid with gold. 
The oracle or holy of holies was separated from the 
holy place by a partition of cedar boards, in which was 
a two-leaved door of olive wood, which turned on 
golden hinges. In point of furniture Solomon's temple 
differed from the tabernacle in the number and size of 
the pieces. Thus there were two additional and much 
larger cherubim of carved olive wood overlaid with 
gold. There were ten tables of shew-bread and ten 
candlesticks instead of one. The brazen altar of the 
temple was much larger than that of the taberna- 
cle. Instead of the small laver of the tabernacle, the 
temple had the molten sea and ten la vers besides. 
Solomon's temple, after standing four hundred years, 
was destro3 7 ed by the army of Nebuchadnezzar, under 
Nebuzaradan, in the eleventh year of Zedekiah, 
B. C. 587. 

13. The Temple of Zerubbabel. Was built by the 
exiles who returned from Babylon, and finished 516 
B. C. It was captured and plundered by Antiochus 
Epiphanes, B. C. 168, but was retaken and rededicated 
by Judas Maccabeus three years later. Pompey cap- 
tured the building when he took Jerusalem, B. C. 63. 
It occupied the same site and was about of the same 
dimensions as Solomon's temple, but less elaborately 
furnished. 

14. The Synagogue. The word synagogue comes 
from the Greek, and literally means a gathering 
together. As an institution the synagogue is of post- 
exilian origin. A fundamental idea in its institution 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 181 

was a place to give instruction, even more than a place 
of worship. Ten men in any community were a suffi- 
cient number to form a synagogue. In large cities 
there were many. They exercised not only religi- 
ous, but to some extent civil jurisdiction over their 
membership. In communities altogether Jewish, the 
entire civil authority was lodged in them. Each syna- 
gogue had its ruler or rulers besides a number of 
minor officials who cared for the building and assisted 
in its religious services. 

XXXIII.— Sacred Persons. 

1. Israel — Levi — Aaron. The divine intent was that 
all Israel should be a nation of priests. As Israel 
failed to realize this high calling, a single tribe of 
Israel was set apart to divine service, in the priest- 
hood, the tribe of Levi. The tribe of Levi with its 
cattle was chosen instead of the first-born of man and 
beast from all the tribes, as Jehovah had at first desig- 
nated, in due recognition of his mercy in exempting 
the first-born of the Israelites from the death of the 
last Egyptian plague. But as the tribe of Levi did 
not number as many as the first-born of all the tribes, 
it was required that for the remaining 273, five shekels 
apiece should be paid into the sanctuary, and this sum 
continued to be the price paid for the redemption of 
the first-born of man and beast. Ex. 13:2; Num. 3: 
11-51; 8:14-18. The tribe of Levi having been 
divinely set apart for the service of the sanctuary, a 
further distinction was made in the tribe itself. Part 
of it, Aaron and his sons, were appointed priests, and 
the rest to be their attendants and ministers. 



182 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

2. Consecration of the Levites. The form for the 
consecration of the Levites was simpler than in the 
case of priests, Num. 8 : 6-21. First the} 7 were sprinkled 
with the " water of expiation," after which their cloth- 
ing was washed and their persons bathed and shaved. 
Representatives of Israel then laid the hands upon 
their heads, after which Aaron offered them "for a 
wave offering before the Lord," i. e. led them toward 
the altar and back again. The ceremony concluded 
with offering two j'oung bullocks, one a sin offering, 
the other a burnt offering. 

3. Duties of the Levites. Their special duties as 
distinguished from the priests are given in Num. 3 : 6- 
10; 18:2-6. 

4. Qualifications for the Priesthood. Descent from 
Aaron gave a hereditary right to the priesthood. But 
other qualifications were also necessary. The age 
required was probably thirty. The person must be 
without serious physical blemish. Lev. 21 : 17-23. 
While officiating the priest was not permitted to 
indulge in wine or strong drink. He was not allowed 
to defile himself b} 7 touching a dead bod} 7 except in 
case of near relatives. He should marry only a virgin 
of Israel. He must not disfigure himself in mourning. 

5. Consecration of Priests. The ceremony for the 
consecration of the priest is given in Ex. 29 : 1-44 ; 
Lev. 8:1-36; see also Ex. 40:12-15. The services of 
consecrating Aaron and his sons as priests lasted seven 
da3 7 s. The ceremonies of each day were about the 
same. The steps in the first day's ceremony were, — 
washing; clothing in the holy garments; anointing; 
offering of sacrifices b} 7 Moses, who took of the victim's 
blood and put it on the tip of Aaron's right ear, right 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCH^OLOU V. 183 

thumb, and great toe of right foot, to indicate the 
completeness of the consecration ; and concluding with 
Moses sprinkling the blood of the victim, mixed with 
anointing oil, upon the garments of Aaron and his 
sons. The anointing oil was composed of myrrh, cin- 
namon, cassia and calamus, mixed with pure olive oil. 

6. Duties of Priests. They were to offer the sacri- 
fices; mediate between God and the people; receive 
the people's offerings; bless them in the Lord's name; 
offer incense morning and evening; attend to the 
golden candlestick and keep it in oil; renew the shew- 
bread; keep the interior of the sanctuary clean; fur- 
nish a guard at its entrance ; keep a fire burning on 
the altar of burnt offering; have the oversight of the 
Levites who were not permitted to come near the ves- 
sels of the sanctuary; decide as to the worthiness of 
animals for sacrifice; examine and instruct lepers; 
prescribe the services required in all cases of ceremon- 
ial purification taking place at the sanctuary ; act as 
teachers; have charge of the rolls of the law; judge in 
controversies, etc. The high priest might do as little 
or as much as he chose of the priestly service. But he 
had his own peculiar duties outside of this. He had 
the oversight of the sanctuary. Only he could officiate 
on the da}- of atonement. On the occasion of the 
installation of Aaron and his sons he was to offer, 
morning and evening, the appointed daily meal offer- 
ing. 

7. Divisions of Priests and Levites. David divided 
the priesthood into twenty-four classes, each class rep- 
resenting a family, sixteen of the families being from 
the line of Eleazar, eight from the line of Ithamar. 
They alternated by families in temple service. David 



184 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

also divided the Levites into twenty-four classes, who 
in addition to their ordinary duties acted as singers, 
musicians, secretaries, trustees of sacred funds, etc. 
Most of the Levites continued simply to serve the 
priests. 

8. Priestly Dress. The official dress of the ordinary 
priest as specified consisted of a tunic, trousers, girdle 
and turban. The material was linen bysus, the color 
white. 

9. High Priest's Dress. The tunic and short trous- 
ers were the same as the priests'. The girdle was white 
bysus embroidered with the three colors of the sanctu- 
ary, blue, purple and scarlec. The turban was a long- 
strip of bysus wound around upon itself. The ' ' robe 
of the ephod," worn over the tunic, was of bysus, blue 
in color, sleeveless, reaching to the knees. The ephod 
itself was bysus interwoven with gold, blue, purple 
and scarlet threads. It probably consisted of two 
pieces to cover the front and back of the body, and 
reaching from the shoulder to the thighs; a girdle 
binding it to the body ; and two shoulder-strips on each 
of which was an onyx stone or beryl set in gold, and 
engraved with the names of the tribes. The breast- 
plate of the hight priest is described in Ex. Chs. 28 
and 39. The Urim and Thummin were to be put in or 
assigned to the breastplate, and by means of them 
divine decisions respecting Israel were in some way 
reached. On the front of the mitre or turban was a 
golden plate inscribed " Holy to the Lord." 

10. Support of Priests and Levites. All Israel owed 
tribute to God. This tribute God relinquished in favor 
of the tribe of Levi including Aaron and his sons. A 
tithe, i. e. a tenth of their income was to be sacredly 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 185 

set apart by all the remaining Israelites for the Levites. 
This was their chief support. In addition to this the 
Levites had forty-eight cities assigned them to dwell 
in, as the} 7 did not inherit land like their brethren. 
(See § 34.) They also had T -J- ¥ part in the spoils of 
war. Oat of their tithe the Levites were required to 
give in turn a tithe to the priests. A second tithe was 
enjoined in Deuteronomy. It went to the sanctuary 
for the expenses of the festival meals. Parts of ani- 
mals offered in sacrifice also went to the priests. There 
was a third tithe payable at the end of every three 
years, Deut. 14:28, 29. The priests also had by way 
of support and among other things the first-born of 
men and animals and first fruits. These were sacred to 
God, and his right, in them, so far as they constituted 
a pecuniary resource, was transferred to the priests. 

11. Levitical Cities. In addition to the above sup- 
port forty-eight cities were assigned to the tribe of 
Levi, inclusive of priests and Levites. Of these, thir- 
teen were afterwards assigned to the priests, and six, 
three on either side of the Jordan, were set apart as 
cities of refuge. (See Topographical Geography.) A 
tract of land around the city went with each city. 
The property within the cities was the inalienable right 
of the Levites. 

12. The Prophets. Among the sacred and theocra- 
tic persons of the Israelites were the prophets. The 
prophetical institution was one for which the law made 
provision. See Deut. 18:9-19. The historical origin 
of prophecy is cotemporaneous with the constitution 
of the Theocracy at Sinai. True prophecy existed be- 
fore this, existed with the first promise of redemption 
immediately after the fall of our first parents. But 

[13] 



186 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

the Law, the Theocracy, the ceremonials of worship 
were instituted for the development of that promise 
through the prophetic office. Three or four different 
titles are applied to the prophets. These set forth the 
twofold office of the prophet, viz. the proclaiming of 
God's will as it is revealed to them, and the predicting 
of future events. The prophets were the divinely 
called and commisioned representatives of Jehovah to 
announce and interpret the divine will to others as 
that will was revealed to them of God. Prophets and 
prophecy existed therefore before Samuel, but Samuel 
as the great religious reformer and organizer of his daj 7 , 
was also the organizer of the more formal institution 
of the prophetic order, and founder of the so-called 
school of the prophets. But it should be remembered 
that there might be members of the prophetic order to 
whom the gift of prophecy was not vouchsafed, and 
that there might be inspired prophets who did not be- 
long to the prophetic order, as Amos. The prophet 
inspired and announcing God's will, like the sixteen 
prophets whose Books we have, was sovereignly called 
of God to his office, generally, without special refer- 
ence to lineal or scholarly antecedents. The prophets 
were the national poets; they were annalists and his- 
torians; they were preachers of a patriotism founded 
on religion; they were preachers of morals and a 
spiritual religion ; they were extraordinary, but author- 
ized exponents of the law; they held a j)astoral office 
in relation to the people ; they were political advisers, 
leaders and powers in the State ; above all the} 7 were 
the revealers of God's will to men. The Scriptures do 
not represent an unbroken series of prophets each in- 
ducted into the office by his predecessor. 



OLD TESTAMENT ACRH^OLOGY. 187 

13. The Nazarites. Nazarite is the name given to 
such Israelites, whether male or female, as consecrated 
themselves to Jehovah by a peculiar vow prescribed in 
Num. Ch. 6. The special vow whereby one bound 
himself to be a Nazarite involved three things. First, 
he was to abstain from wine and strong drink, vinegar 
made of wine or strong drink, liquor of grapes, grapes 
either moist or dried, in fact from every production of 
the vine. Second, he must refrain from cutting the 
hair of his head during the whole period of his Nazar- 
iteship. Third, lie must avoid every contact with the 
dead during his Nazariteship. The Bible says nothing 
about the duration of the Nazarite's vow, but evidently 
leaves every one to fix his own time. When the time 
of Nazariteship was accomplished, the Nazarite had to 
present himself at the sanctuary with three sacrifices, 
corresponding to the three prohibitions of Nazaritism, 
viz. a he-lamb for a burnt offering, a ewe-lamb for a 
sin offering, and a ram for a peace offering. The idea 
of the Nazarite vow is a person separated, dedicated, 
for the time being, in a special sense unto Jehovah. 

14. The Rechabites. They were a tribe or religious 
order who appear only in one memorable scene of 
Scripture, Jer. 35 : 2-18. Their history before and 
after it lies in much obscurity. In some respects thej 7 
are analogous to the Nazarites with whom they shared 
the rule of abstinence from wine. But the Rechabites 
also were prohibited the building of houses (they dwelt 
in tents), and the cultivation of land. Their "father" 
or founder, to whom they referred their rule of life, 
was that Jehonadab or Jonadab, son of Rechab, who 
lent his countenance to Jehu in the abolition of Tyrian 
Baal-worship. 2 Ki. Ch. 10. The order or "house of 



188 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Rechab" appears in Jer. Ch. 35, from which we learn 
that they had survived in Judah after the fall of the 
northern kingdom and continued to observe the ordi- 
nance of Jehonadab till the approach of Nebuchadnez- 
zar drove them for protection into Jerusalem. Jere- 
miah promised them as a reward of their obedience 
that they should never lack a man to represent them 
(as a priest) before Jehovah. 
15. The Judges. See § 28, 7. 

XXXIV.— Sacred Usages. (Sacrifices, Offerings, 
Vows, etc.) 

1. Classes of Sacrifices or Offerings. The sacrifices 
prescribed to Israel were animal and vegetable, or 
bloody and unbloody. The animal or bloody sacrifices 
were the more important. The vegetable or unbloody 
were generally offered as accompaniments of the animal 
or bloody. In regard to both kinds, only such animals 
and vegetables were required and offered as were most 
common with the people, and as a rule, most useful or 
valuable to the people. It was absolutely necessary 
that whatever was offered in sacrifices should be the 
best, without blemish, and if the offering was an ani- 
mal, that it be at least eight days old. Besides cattle, 
sheep and goats, of both sexes, pigeons, and turtle 
doves w T ere also offered, and in case of great necessity, 
poverty, etc., the birds might be substituted for ani- 
mals. 

2. The Vegetable Offerings. These consisted of 
roasted ears or heads of grain, fine flour, oil, wine and 
frankincense. Besides the regular meal and drink 
offering, they included the first sheaf at the passover, 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 189 

the shew bread and the pentecostal loaves. In all 
eases the best cf each kind was to be offered. Leaven 
and hone} 7 were excluded as offerings. The leavened 
pentecostal loaves and wave cakes were not brought 
upon the altar. 

3. The Presentation of Animal Sacrifices. The 
ceremony required that the following be done: 

a. The presentation of the victim. 

b. The laying on of hands by the offerer. 

c. The slaying of the victim. 

(1. The sprinkling of the blood of the victim. 

e. The burning of some part of the animal on the 
altar. 

In nearly all animal sacrifices the laying on of hands 
by some person or persons was required. The act im- 
plied substitution, and set forth symbolically the trans- 
ference of the sin, desire, purpose, etc. of the indi- 
vidual to the victim. The waving (horizontally) or 
heaving (elevating and lowering perpendicularly) of 
an offering had a similar meaning. In public sacri- 
fices, and in those for a leper, the animal was slain by 
the priests, but in private sacrifices it was slain by the 
offerer, except in the case of birds. The victim's life 
was taken to secure its blood, and that because of Lev. 
17: 11. The consuming of the victim by fire had no 
reference to the appeasing of God's anger, but was 
simply a method of bringing it before and making it 
acceptable to God. All sacrifices were offered either 
on the ground of communion with God, or for the pur- 
pose of restoring such communion. The burnt and 
peace offerings indicated communion with God. Sin 
and trespass offerings were made when communion 
with God had broken off, and to restore it. 



190 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

4. The Burnt Offering. The burnt offering was one 
of the most common of sacrifices. It implied atone- 
ment and symbolized entire surrender. The victim 
must be an unblemished male animal — bullock, ram 
or goat — or in case of poverty, turtle doves or the 
young of tame doves, either gender. 

5. The Peace Offering. In the peace or thank offer- 
ing only the choicest part of the animal came upon the 
altar and was for God, viz. the fat; the remainder of 
the animal being divided between the priests and the 
offerer. The principal thing about the peace or thank 
offering was the accompanying sacred meal where God 
was regarded as the guest of the individual or com- 
munity. There were two classes of peace or thank 
offering, viz. those legally binding and those purely 
voluntary. 

6. The Sin Offering. Atonement is the fundamen- 
tal idea both in the sin offering and the trespass or 
guilt offering. As to the difference between these two 
kinds of offering, the one carries the idea of satisfac- 
tion and restitution, the other the idea of expiation; 
the one for the most part concerns the offence, the 
other the offender. The making of amends must go 
with the trespass offering, while the sin offering sufficed 
of itself. The trespass offering was of an individual, 
the sin offering of a public character — for a people. 
The sin offering was brought on all the great festival 
seasons, and in connection with other sacrifices; the 
trespass offering was brought only by itself (except in 
the case of cleansing a leper) , and never upon festival 
occasions. As to the offences requiring a sin offering 
and the character of the offering see especially Lev. 
Ch. 4 and Ch. 5 to verse 14. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. . 191 

7. The Trespass Offering. The prominent idea 
again is atonement. Some of the differences between 
this and the sin offering are noted under Sin Offering 
just above. Both the sin and trespass offering were 
"most holy" — see what follows under 8. For the 
trespass offering it was a ram or a lie-lamb that was 
always required. The trespass offering was to be made 
for the following: 

a. If the person sinned unwittingly in the "holy 
things." Lev 7 . 5: 15, 1G. 

b. Unintentional transgression of some divine com- 
mand. Lev. 5:17-19. 

c. Oppressing or falsely dealing with a neighbor. 
Lev. 6:2-7. 

(/. Criminal intercourse of a man with a betrothed 
maid. Lev. 19:20-22. 

e. In the ceremon} 7 for purifying a leper. Lev. 
Ch. 14. 

/. In case of the defilement of a Nazarite. Num. 
6:6-12. 

g. In the case of the men who had married foreign 
wives, as that case is summed up in Ezra 10: 19. 

8. "Holy" and "Most Holy" Offerings. Certain 
offerings like the burnt offering, sin offering, trespass 
offering, and the lambs presented at Pentecost for a 
public peace offering, were regarded and called " most 
holy," while others, like the remaining public peace 
offerings were regarded simply as "holy." The 
" most holy " offerings were slain on the north side of 
the altar, while the " holy" offerings were slain on the 
south side of the altar. In the case of the " most 
holy " offering such part of it as did not come upon the 
altar was eaten exclusively by the priests in the fore- 



192 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

court of the sanctuary, while in the case of the " holy " 
offering the offerers also partook. 

9. The Meal Offerings. Certain meal offerings were 
independent, i. e. constituted offerings of themselves 
and were brought alone to the altar, while others were 
brought in connection with and as the accompaniments 
of other offerings. To the former belonged 

a. The raw wheat flour mixed with oil and frankin- 
cense mentioned in Lev. 2: 1-3. 

b. The oblation consisting of oven-baked unleavened 
cakes and wafers mixed with oil in Lev. 2 : 4. 

c. Similar cakes baked in a pan and broken. 
Lev. 2:5, 6. 

d. A meal offering of the frying pan. Lev. 2: 7. 

e. The meal offering of first fruits mentioned in 
Lev. 2:14-16. 

f. The meal offering of jealousy described in Num. 
Ch. 5. 

ft. The sin offering in cases of extreme poverty. 
Lev. 5:11-13. 

h. The offering of the high priest at his consecration, 
and daily afterwards. Lev. 6: 19-23. 

i. The meal offering required in the ceremony for 
the purification of a leper. Lev. 14: 10, 20. 

Offerings ft, 5, c, d, e, f and ft, were partly consumed 
on the altar, the rest being the portion of the priests. 
Offerings h and i were entirely consumed upon the al- 
tar. Offerings «, 6, c, d, e and/, were private and 
voluntary, but offering g was required by law as also 
h and i. There were besides meal offerings brought in 
connection with other offerings, viz. with the daily 
morning and evening sacrifices; with the additional 
daily festival sacrifices including the Sabbath; with 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 193 

the burnt offering brought on the presentation of first 
fruits at the passover and at pentecost; with the burnt 
and sin offerings offered for the congregation when it 
had sinned unwittingly; and with those of the Nazar- 
ite when he had completed his vow. As to what was 
offered and the proportion see Num. 15 : 1-12. 

10. The Daily Sacrifices. They were in order as 
follows : 

a. A burnt offering of a lamb with its meal offering. 

b. The meal offering of the high priest. See No. 9. 

c. The offering of incense at the altar of incense. 

d. The drink offering for the previous meal offering. 

e. On the Sabbath two lambs were offered as burnt 
offerings, with the appointed meal and drink offering. 
Lev. 28 : 9, 10. 

11. Ceremonial Purifications. Three kinds of cere- 
monial impurities required animal sacrifices as a means 
for their removal; viz.: 

a. Contact with the dead of men or animals. For 
the law and ceremony of purification see Num. 
19: 1-22. 

b. Leprosy in men, houses or clothing. For the law 
in regard to this see Lev. Chs. 13 and 14. 

c. Morbid fluxes of the human body. For the law 
in regard to this see Lev. Ch. 15. 

12. Vows. The Scriptures nowhere require them, 
only recognize and regulate them. They are of two 
kinds, viz.: 

a. Positive Vows, in which some designated object 
or person was dedicated to Jehovah, as in the case of 
Jacob's vow at Bethel. Gen. 28 : 20-22. 

c. Negative Vows, in which the person abstained 
from certain privileges or enjoyments for the purpose 



194 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

of doing honor to Jehovah, as in the case of the Nazar- 
ite vow. 

13. The Nazarite and Rechabite. See preceding 
section. 

14. Circumcision. The Jews, through Abraham, 
received the rite of circumcision from Jehovah ; Moses 
established it as a national ordinance; and Joshua 
carried it into effect before the Israelites entered the 
land of Canaan. Circumcision was the sign of the 
covenant entered into between God and Abraham and 
his seed. Gen. 17:10, 11. The rite of circumcision 
was performed on male children on the eighth day after 
birth. The rite extended to servants. Xeglect to 
observe the rite entailed the penalty of being cut off 
from the people. 

XXXV.— Idolatrous Forms. 

The principal forms of idolatry mentioned in the Old 
Testament are as follows: 

1. The Asherah. The word Asherah is wrongly 
rendered "groves" in the Authorized Version. In the 
Revised Version it is simply transliterated This form 
of idolatry is probably closely related to the obelisk 
worship of the Ancient Egyptians. The name is still 
preserved in Arabic and is applied to a ceremony 
observed in connection with the celebration of the 
birth of the prophet Muhammad, that seems to have 
come down from the obelisk worship of Old Egypt. 
Deut. 16:21. 

2. Ashtoreth, plural Ashtaroth. Was the female 
counterpart of Baal, which see. This goddess is the 
same as Ishtar of the Assyrian pantheon, and as 
Astarte of the Greeks and Romans. 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 195 

3. Baal. This deity represented the powers of 
nature, especially the sun. The chief gods of the 
Phoenicians and Canaanites were Baal and Ashtoreth, 
his female counterpart. Under other names he was 
worshipped also by other nations of antiquity. Thus 
Molech the national divinity of the Ammorites, and 
Chemosh, the abomination of the Moabites, simply 
stood for Baal. The same is true of the old Egyptian 
Anion Ra, etc. Baal's images were often made in the 
human form. He had absolute authority, had his 
priests and prophets; while altars were erected and 
sacrifices offered to him. The first mention of this 
form of idolatry in Israel is in Num. 2f>: 3; Deut. 4: 3. 
Baal- worship was one of the grossest forms of idolatry 
into which Israel fell. 

4. The Brazen Serpent. This was one of the milder 
forms of idolatry into which Israel fell. In what this 
idolatry consisted will be learned from reading together 
Xum 21:9 and 2 Ki. 18:4. 

5. Chemosh. Was the national god of the Moabites, 
and is identified in general with Baal and Molech. 
See Baal above. The worship of Chemosh was accom- 
panied by the most cruel and licentious rites, as was 
also that of Baal and Ashtoreth. 

6. Dagon. Dagon was the national god of the Phil- 
istines. The idol had the hands and face of a man and 
the bod} 7 of a fish. Judg. 16 : 23. Dagon's female coun- 
terpart was Atargatis, mentioned in the Apocrypha. 

7. The Golden Calf. Upon two notable occasions 
the Israelites fell into this form of idolatry, the one 
being at Sinai, the other the calf worship instituted by 
Jeroboam at Dan and Bethel. This form of idolatry 
is most probably of Egyptian origin, going back to the 



196 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

worship of the sacred bull Apis at Memphis, and 
Mnevis at Heliopolis. Besides other reasons this view 
seems to be confirmed by the statements made in Josh. 
24:14; Ezek. 20:8; 23: 3, 8. 

8. The High Places. At first this term referred to 
hill- tops which were favorite places for offering sac- 
rifices; but afterwards it came to be applied to worship 
at forbidden places instead of that required at the 
sanctuary. 

9. Molech. Molech was the national divinity of the 
Ammonites, corresponding to Baal. See Baal and 
Chemosh above. 

10. Nebo. This divinity is mentioned in Isa. 46: 1 in 
connection with Bel or Baal. Nebo was the fifth in the 
list of planetary divinities in the Assyrian and Baby- 
lonian pantheon, and corresponded to Hermes of the 
Greek, and Mercury of the Roman mythology. 

11. Chiun, Eemphan, Rephan. The God Chiun 
of Amos 5:26 is doubtless the same as Reniphan of 
The Acts 7 : 43. This idol was honored by the Israel- 
ites during their sojourn in the wilderness. As 
Assyrian and Babylonian monuments show the refer- 
erence is to the planteary divinity Saturn. 

12. Bimmon, Mentioned only in connection with 
Naaman's request of Elisha in 2 Ki. 5:18. Rimmon 
was a Syrian divinity to whom a temple was erected 
in Damascus. 

13. Tammuz. Mentioned only in Ezek. 8:14. 
Probably the name of an Assyrian and Babylonian 
deity of Akkadian origin, the Assyrian name being 
Dumuzi. 

13. The Teraphim. The first form of idolatrous wor- 
ship of which the Bible gives us any information, and 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 197 

the last form of idolatrous worship in which the Israel- 
ites fell after their return from the Babylonian exile, 
was that connected with the Teraphim. From the 
notices we have of them the} 7 seem to have been simply 
household gods like the Roman penates ; images having 
the form of a man. Gen. 31 : 19 ; Zech. 10 : 2. 

15. Divination. The forms of and laws against 
divination are for the most part set forth in Lev. 19: 
2G, 31 ; 20: 6, 27 and Deut. 18: 9-14. Several terms 
are used in these passages. "Divination" is a generic 
term that covers all others. The fundamental idea in 
it is, to decide. "Augury " carries the idea of acting 
covertly, hence to use magic, conjure. The "en- 
chanter" was one w r ho used the arts of divination 
professionally. The word serpent comes from the 
same root which has the primary idea of hissing. The 
term "sorcerer" is one of the terms applied to the 
magicians of Pharaoh who sought to imitate Moses. 
The "charmer" was one who bound knots or charms. 
The "consulter with a familiar spirit" was the form of 
magic practiced by the so-called "witch of Endor"; 
i. e. one who inquired of an ob or python. The 
"wizard" was the "knower" or wise man, one who 
could foretell the future. The "necromancer" was 
one who was supposed to be able to commune with the 
spirits of the deceased, and so learn the secrets hidden 
from the living. Other forms of divination are men- 
tioned in Ezek. 21 : 21 ; Hos. 4: 12, etc. 

XXXVI. -Jewish Sects. 

1. Samaritanism. The name is derived from the 
city of Samaria, the capital of the district inhabited 



198 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHiEOLOGY. 

by the Samaritans. Samaritanism was the only sect 
originated before the exile. It bad a political rather 
than religions cause. With the fall of the Northern 
Kingdom of Israel many Israelites were carried away 
captive to Babylon, but some were allowed to remain. 
In place of the Israelites transported to Babjdon the 
King of Assyria brought heathen colonists from Babylon 
and other places and located them in the cities of 
Samaria, 2 Ki. 17:24. These colonists represented 
nine different nationalties. As a religious outgrowth 
of the political amalgamation of these colonists with 
the Israelites remaining in the land we have the sect 
of the Samaritans. Samaritanism accepts the Penta- 
teuch as its religious Book; is strictly monotheistic; 
teaches a resurrection of the dead, a day of judg- 
ment, and everlasting rewards and punishments; ob- 
serves the seven national festivals of the Jews; and 
holds to the coming of the Messiah 6,000 years, and the 
coming of the last judgment 7,000 years after the crea- 
tion. The square letter in use for the Hebrew since 
the second century B. C. the Samaritans have never 
adopted. They employ one of their own which closely 
resembles the Phoenician. The Samaritan Pentateuch 
is the Pentateuch according to the present Hebrew text, 
but in the Samaritan character. 

2. The Scribes. Before the exile the priests and 
prophets were dominant. After the exile and in place 
of the prophet arose the Scribe. At first the Scribe 
was nearly identical with the priest. In Ezra both offices 
were united. But later the Scribe took the place of 
the prophet, and became an antagonist of the priest. 
Out of the party of the Scribes came the party of the 
Pharisees, and out of the party of the Priests came 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 199 

the party of the Sadducees. The Scribes aimed to 
champion the Mosaic law; but the explanation and 
traditions of their unwritten law upon the law of Moses 
soon subverted the latter. 

3. The Pharisees. The Pharisees formed the party 
of the law, as that law was interpreted and applied by 
the Scribes. See The Scribes above. 

4. The Sadducees. They have been called the aris- 
tocracy of Israel, who put social position above con- 
formity to the oral law. They constituted the party 
of opposition to the Pharisees. The Pharisees were 
best represented by the Scribes, and the Sadducees 
were best represented by the priesthood. 

5. The Essenes. This sect or order arose during the 
Maccaba?n period. They differed greatly from Phari- 
see and Sadducee, but of the two more nearly resemb- 
led the former. They observed the Sabbath, but re- 
jected the sacrifices. They laid special emphasis on 
the freedom of the individual and on speaking the 
truth. 



IV. -LITERATURE, SCIENCE AND ARTS. 

XXXVII.— Literature, Science, and Arts of the 

Jews. 

This subject is treated of in part under Biblical 
Philology, and under Domestic and Civil Antiquities. 

Fcr the Alphabet, Alphabetical Writing and Litera- 
ture of the Jews see also the Author's Introduction 
Outlines of the Books of The Old Testament. 

The statements made in Gen. 46:3 and The Acts 



200 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

7 : 22 and other similar statements imply that in Egypt 
Israel was to be made a great nation not only numeri- 
cally but intellectually. Sufficient evidence has already 
been furnished to show that the Israelites, Egyptians 
and others were far more thoroughly versed in the 
sciences and arts than is commonly supposed ; that 
certain so-called discoveries of the last half century 
were well-known matters one and two thousand years 
B. C. 

Only the briefest statement of a few facts can be 
made under each of the following heads. 

1. Astronomy. Psa. 19 : 6 teaches an orbital revolu- 
tion of the sun from one end of heaven (in Argo) to 
the other end (in Hercules), a fact that is represented 
as one of the recent discoveries of modern science. 
Another of these so-called recent discoveries is the 
revolution of our whole solar system around the 
Pleiades, or more specifically around Alcyone of the Ple- 
iades, a fact i>lainly taught in Job 38 : 31. And in the 
same verse in Job there follows another challeuge of 
God to Job " Canst thou loose the bands of Orion ?" 
where the evident reference is to that unique fact 
about the stars composing Orion's belt that they pre- 
serve the same relative position to each other and to 
the rest of the constellation ever and without change. 
The idea of Orion being a giant chained to the skies 
is a comparatively modern myth. Again in the follow- 
ing verse, Job 38 : 32 we read " Canst thou bring forth 
Mazzaroth in his season ? " Most interpreters change 
the letters in the orignal word, m into n and r into I 
and then refer it to the signs of the Zodiac. There is 
no need of taking such liberties with the text, and the 
Arabic shows plainly what is meant, as the word is an 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 201 

Arabic one. The term refers to the satellites as they 
move about their planets, held to the planets by the 
law of gravitation; to the planets and their satellites 
as they move about the sun, held by it and to it ac- 
cording to the same law of gravitation ; to the sun and 
planets and the satellites and the whole solar system 
moving about Alcyone of the Pleiades, held by it and 
to it according to the same wonderful law. Did Job 
understand all this? Doubtless; or God would be 
guilty of challenging Job in language Job could not 
understand ; would be guilty himself of the charge he 
makes against Job and his persecutors of " darkening 
counsel by words without knowledge." Venus is re- 
ferred to in Isa. 14:12 and Saturn in Amos 5:26. 
Other stars and constellations are referred to. The 
phases of the moon are carefully noted. When the 
Old Testament speaks of stars singing it is not fancy 
but ascertained fact as their vibrations of light do 
emit harmoniously musical sounds. The above will 
suffice by way of example. 

2. Geology — The Structure of the Earth. If the 
language of Job 38:4-11 and Proverbs 8:23-29 be 
critically studied it will be found to set forth in a 
remarkable manner the geological order in the forma- 
tion of the earth. The passages Psa. 103:12; Isa. 
40: 22 and others plainly teach or imply the spherical 
character of the earth. Various meteorological facts, 
laws and conditions are repeatedly alluded to in such 
a manner as to show a wide and accurate scientific 
knowledge of the same. Indirect statements, and in 
statements used by way of illustration, numerous 
natural laws and phenomena are cited, and each 
[14] 



202 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

citation will be found to be without an error if the 
language be thoroughly studied. 

3. Numerical Computation. Probably men first 
began to compute by using the fingers of the hand. 
At an early time five as a multiple was very common. 
There are special words for the units, and for 10, 100, 
1,000 and 10,000. All other numbers are indicated 
by the duals or plurals of these. The letters of the 
Hebrew alphabet were also used as signs of numbers. 
Hebrew usage shows a decided preference for whole 
numbers as against fractions, and likewise for round 
numbers. Numbers are also used in the Bible in a 
representative capacitj', when precision is not the 
intention; thus seven and its multiples indicate com- 
pleteness. Numbers are also used in a symbolical 
sense; thus three and four as well as their sum and 
multiple have a typical or mystical meaning. 

4. Divisions of Time. At an early period time was 
measured during the da}" by shadows, during the night 
by the position of the constellations. The dial was 
apparently no new thing in the reign of Ahaz, 740 
13. C. But long before this date, as far back as the fifth 
dynasty, B. C. 3566-3333, the old Egyptians divided 
both day and night into twelve parts. During the 
period of the Judges, and probably before that, the night 
was divided into three " watches" of four hours each. 
The three principal parts of the day were morning, 
midday and evening. The Hebrew word for hour, 
and with which the modern Arabic word for hour cor- 
responds, is first used in Daniel (3:6), and in that 
Book is used five times. It was not used with the 
same precision as at present. The Jews divided the 
day into four parts; the third hour was 9 A. M., the 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 203 

sixth hour was 12 M. and the ninth hour 3 P. M. But 
the Jews were accustomed to begin the day with the 
evening. The division of time known as the week, or 
seven days, goes back to the beginning of human 
history. Gen. 2:2, 3; 7:4; 29:27. While the 
Hebrew months were lunar they were also acquainted 
with the solar month. Before the exile the months 
were for the most part numbered, but names are given 
to four, viz., Abib, Ziv, Bui, Ethanim. After the 
exile names of Assyrian or Babylonian origin were 
given to the months, the names and order of the 
months of the year being as follows: — Nisan (formerly 
Abib) corresponds approximately to our April; lyar 
(formerly Ziv) = May : Sivan = June ; Tammuz= July ; 
Ab = August ; Elul = September ; Tishri (formerly 
Ethanim) = October ; Marcheshvan (formerly Bui) = 
November ; Chislev = December ; Tebeth = January ; 
Shebat = February ; Ad ar = March. To adjust the 
calender to the course of the sun it was customary 
about every third year to add a thirteenth month 
called Veadar, i. e. another Aclar. The Mosaic law 
began the year with Abib or Nisan. Another reckon- 
ing ended and began the year with Tishri. The 
Sabbatic and Jubilee years began with Tishri. The 
celebration of Tishri first as New Year's day was 
introduced after the exile. The first era from which 
the Hebrews reckoned time was the Exodus; after 
that from the accession of certain kings; after the exile 
the Seleucidian era beginning B. C. 312 was adopted: 
and about the twelfth century A. D. the present 
practice was adopted, i.e. reckoning from the "creation 
of the world," and according to which in order to 
ascertain the Jewish year we must add 3761 to the 



204 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 

year of our era. For the seasons of the year see §15, 
2, and Sacred Seasons § 31. 

5. Medicine and Surgery, The Hebrews doubtless 
acquired much of medical knowledge and skill from 
the ancient Egyptians who were far advanced in this 
profession as we learn from their monuments, from 
profane writers and from such Scripture allusions as 
Jer. 46:11. When such delicate operations as those 
necessary for the removal of cataract from the eye 
were successfully performed in Egypt about 2000 B. C. 
the medical art can scarcely be said to have been in 
its infancy then or when the Israelites were in Egypt. 
The old Egyptian physicians were required to be 
specialists, so that there were oculists, dentists, physi- 
cians for disorders of the bowels, diseases of the head, 
etc. They were also required to go through a thorough 
course of study and training before being allowed to 
practice, and then to practice only their specialty. 
They also held post-mortem examinations to ascertain 
the cause, nature of disease, etc. Doubtless the 
Israelites acquired much from the Egyptians as to the 
medical art. Diseases were carefully and scientifically 
diagnosed. Remedies still in use were applied. Con- 
tagion was thoroughly 7 understood and there was a 
perfect system of quarantine enforced by law. Those 
passages in the Old Testament that speak about the 
"reins," e. g. Psa. 26:2, necessarily imply quite a 
thorough understanding of the functions and opera- 
tions of the kidneys. The Hebrew word as first used, 
refers to the kidneys, but afterwards when it comes to 
to be used of a moral organ or function, it can only be 
referred to the conscience. The Hebrew medical and 
sanitary laws looked however far more to the preven- 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 205 

tion of disease than to the cure of it. The description 
of old age given in Eccles. 12 : 1-7 is remarkable not 
only for its poetic beauty, but for its physiological 
accuracy. See further § 27. 

G. The Art of Writing, Material for Writing, Lit- 
erature, etc. 

On the Alphabet and Alphabetical Writing see 
Author's Introduction Outlines. 

On the Original Languages of the Old Testament see 
Author's Introduction Outlines. 

On the Hebrew Language and Literature see Author's 
Introduction Outlines. 

As the Alphabet and alphabetical writing came from 
Egypt so likewise the first materials for writing came 
from Egypt. There the Israelites learned the art of 
writing and from there obtained the requisites necessary 
for the practice of the art. Both metallic and reed pens 
were used, the former being used also for engraving on 
wood and metal. The inkhorn, carrying the ink, pens 
and paper knife, was worn in the girdle. The first, and 
for many centuries the principal if not the only writ- 
ing material was the celebrated papyrus paper grown, 
manufactured, and brought to perfection especially in 
Egypt. The papyrus was a water plant (see Bulrush 
§ 16, 2), reed or cane growing to the height of twelve 
or fifteen feet and having a tuft at its head. Anciently 
the plant was used for almost as many purposes as at 
present is the palm. The central pith of the plant 
was used for the manufacture of paper. This pith was 
cut lengthwise in strips; these strips were then laid 
aside of each other forming a layer; then another layer 
was formed on top of this one with the strips placed at 
right angles to the former ones, and so on, a prepara- 



206 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

tion being added, after which the whole was crushed 
down, made properly thin, smooth, thus forming the 
sheet or leaves. The leaves were then glued together 
forming the papyrus rolls. As early as the sixteenth 
century B. C, and before, the pages of papyrus books 
were numbered at the top of the page over the mid- 
dle of the text, while in the text were to be found 
crosses or asterisks to denote the proper place in the 
text for notes or additions. Writing was with black 
ink, was horizontal and perpendicular, and in the for- 
mer case generally from right to left. Sentences, sec- 
tions and chapters often began with red ink whence 
our word rubric. From papyrus comes our word 
paper; from its Greek name comes our word Bible; 
from its Roman name come our words chart and card; 
and from the gluing together of the papyrus leaves 
comes our word protocol. Other writing materials 
were skins of animals, leather, parchment, etc. 

In addition to what is said in the Author's Introduc- 
tion Outlines of the Books of the Old Testament on 
Hebrew Language and Literature a word may be added 
as to Hebrew poetry. Hebrew poetry is for the most part 
either lyric or gnomic, i. e. didactic, e. g. Proverbs and 
Ecclesiastes. Strictly speaking rhyme and metre do 
not belong to Hebrew poetiy. Hebrew poetry is broken 
up into lines and strophes, the latter being composed 
of several of the former. The most remarkable thing 
perhaps about Hebrew poetry is what is called parallel- 
ism, which consists in recalling, in some wa} 7 , in a sec- 
ond or third member, one or both, the thought expressed 
in the first, with some additional idea, before passing 
on to an entirely new one. Other features of Hebrew 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 207 

poetry are assonance, alliteration, acrostic arrange- 
ments and a certain rhythmical movement. 

7. Music — Vocal and Instrumental. Both vocal and 
instrumental music was highly esteemed and cultivated 
in Old Testament times. The celebration of victories, 
the shepherds as they watched their flocks, the observ- 
ance of the feasts, the worship of God, etc. were attended 
by music and song. Under David 4,000 Levites praised 
the Lord with music and song in the temple service, 
1 Chron. 15:10-29; 23:5,6. This great chorus of 
voices was led by 280 trained musicians, 1 Chron. 25: 
1-9. This body of 280 formed the orchestra of the 
temple. They used stringed instruments like the 
psaltery and harp while the leaders under them used 
C3'mbals. Both men and women were in the choir. 
The orchestra took its place east of the altar of burnt 
offering. David employed men and women singers at 
his court. The music was cultivated, at times anti- 
phonal, and of various airs. The singing was in unison. 
There was also solo-singing as well as chorus-singing. 
Some of the superscriptions to the Psalms indicate the 
instrument to be used, and others the air to be followed. 
The words " To the chief musician " refers to the leader 
who was to take the musical work as it was composed, 
and see that it was sufficiently practiced and properly 
executed for use in the temple. Musical instruments 
were of three kinds: — Stringed, wind, and instruments 
to be beaten or shaken. The principal stringed instru- 
ments were the harp and psaltery. The harp re- 
sembled the modern harp though it was probably of 
different forms, and somewhat smaller. It is seen por- 
trayed on the ancient Egyptian monuments, as e. g. at 
Saccarah in an inscription belonging to the fifth dy- 



208 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

nasty (B. C. 3566-3333). The psaltery probably re- 
sembled somewhat the modern guitar, and is also 
represented on the ancient monuments. The sabbeka 
translated "sackbut" and found only in Dan. Ch. 3, is 
probably not a wind instrument (sackbut), but a 
stringed instrument intermediate between the guitar 
and harp as represented on the Egyptian monuments. 
The Hebrew haleel translated "pipe," 1 Sam. 10:5, 
was a wind instrument resembling the flute, pierced 
with holes. Another wind instrument the ugab, 
Gen. 4 : 21, and translated "organ" and " pipe " resem- 
bled the haleel or flute, only that it was blown into 
from one end, and consisted generally of two hollow 
reeds, perforated along one side. This instrument was 
perhaps identical with another which gives its name to 
the Hebrew Mizmor = Psalm. The trumpets were of 
two kinds; the one consisting of the horn of some ani- 
mal, blown in blasts or a prolonged note, for purposes 
of giving signal, etc. , and onty occasionally as an accom- 
paniment to other musical instruments. The other was 
the silver trumpet of the priest, J^um. 10:1-10. In 
Solomon's temple there were 120 silver trumpets used 
in the religious service. Of instruments to be shaken 
or beaten there was the timbrel resembling the modern 
tambourine, the castanets or small metallic discs, two 
attached to two of the fingers of each hand, and struck 
together; and the cymbals, similar to the castanets 
only much larger, with one held in each hand and 
struck together. 

8. Metals and Metallurgy . Among the metals men- 
tioned in the Old Testament are gold, silver, tin, lead, 
iron, copper, brass which is an alloy of copper and 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 200 

zinc, and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin with a lit- 
tle zinc added. Steel was also probably known. Iron 
and copper were mined in Palestine, but gold, silver, tin 
and lead were not natives. Mining methods similar to 
our own were employed as early as Job 28 : 1-1 1 . The 
various processes of smelting, separating metals from 
their alloys, etc., were well understood before 3000 
B. C. We read of those who were skilled in metal- 
lurgy before the flood, Gen. 4:22, and of numerous 
articles useful and ornamental, produced. 

9. Precious Stones, Engravers, Sculpture, etc. Prec- 
ious stones were an essential and highly prized orna- 
ment of kings, high priests and distinguished persons 
especially. They came chiefly from Arabia, to some 
extent from India and Ethiopia, and both by overland 
and maratime traffic. The following are the principal 
precious stones mentioned in the Old Testament with 
their Hebrew names. 

a. Odeni. Ex. 28 : 17. The term means a red stone. 
It is is translated " sardius," and is the cornelian. 
In Aaron's breastplate. 

b. Pitdah. Ex. 28:17. And mentioned in Job 
28:19 as coming from Ethiopia. The topaz of the 
ancients, but probably the modern chrysolite. The 
second stone in Aaron's breastplate. Ezek. 28: 13. 

c. Bareketh. Ex. 28:17. Translated " carbuncle," 
for which there is no good reason. Many prefer the 
rendering emerald. From the meaning of the root 
word, to glitter, to gleam, to gleam like the lightning, 
the reference would seem to be to the diamond. 
Third stone in Aaron's breastplate. 

(I Nophek. Ex. 28:18. Translated "emerald," 
but it is probably the carbuncle^ i. e. the garnet cut 



210 OLD TESTAMENT ARCHEOLOGY. 

with a convex face Ezek. 27:16. Fourth stone in 
Aaron's breastplate. 

e. Saphir. Ex. 28:18; Ezek. 28:13. The sap- 
phire. Fifth stone in Aaron's breastplate. 

/. Yahalom. Ex. 28: 18; Ezek. 28: 13. Translated 
" diamonds," but is probably a sardonyx or a variety of 
chalcedony . Sixth stone in Aaron's breastplate. 

g. Leshem, Ex. 28:19. Translated "ligure." 
A jacinth or amber. Seventh stone in Aaron's breast- 
plate. 

h. Sliebo. Ex. 28:19. An agate. Eighth stone 
in Aaron's breastplate. 

i. Ahlamah. Ex. 28:19. The amethyst, Ninth 
stone in Aaron's breastplate. 

j. Tarshish. Ex. 28:20. Song of Songs 5:4. 
Translated "beryl," but probably the topaz. Tenth 
stone in Aaron's breastplate. 

k. Shoham. Ex. 28:20. Job 28:16. Probably 
the beryl. In Aaron's breastplate the eleventh stone. 

I. Yashfah. Ex. 28:20; Ezek. 28:13. The jas- 
per. Twelfth stone in Aaron's breastplate. 

m. Kadkod, Ezek. 27: 15; Isa. 54:12. The ruby. 

n. Ekdah. Isa. 54:12. The carbuncle or garnet. 

o. Shameer. Jer. 17:1; Ezek. 3:9. Translated 
"diamond" and "adamant stone." The term indi- 
cates intense hardness. 

From direct statements in the Scriptures, and from 
their long contact with the Egyptians, who were masters 
in the art, we know that the Israelites were skilled in 
engraving, sculpturing, etc. See Isa. 44: 12, 13. 

10. Other Arts. Among other arts practiced by the 
Jews and mentioned in the Scriptures are the mechanic 
masons and plasterers, brick and tile 



OLD TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY. 211 

makers, apothecaries, perfumers, bakers, tanners, 
fullers, spinners, weavers, potters, etc. While certain 
arts and trades were looked upon with more favor than 
others, still skilled labor of any kind was always 
regarded honorably. As a rule artisans grouped 
together in cities, so that a particular part of a street 
or city would be given up entirely to a certain art or 
trade. 



LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 21o 



LITERATURE 

AND 

AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 

(PARTIAL LIST.) 



By-paths of Bible Knowledge. Series. 

Weidner's Exegetical Theology. 

Schaff's Theological Propa3deutic. 

Conder's Handbook to the Bible. , 

Tristram's Natural History of the Bible. 

Works and Maps of the Palestine Exploration Survey. 

Smith's Bible Dictionary. 

McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia. 

Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

Van Lannep's Bible Lands. 

Dr. William Smith's Atlas of Ancient Geography. 

Journal of Royal Geographical Society. 

Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon. 

Bistani's Arabic Lexicon. 

Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians. 

Bissell's Biblical Antiquities. 

Conder's Tell Amarna Tablets. 

Dr. Morrow's Dermatology. 

Dr. N. Williamson. 

Dr. Green's Hebrew Feasts. 

Edersheim's The Temple. 

Maspero's Egyptian Archaeology. 

Dr. G. A. Smith's Historical Geography of the Holy Land. 

Stanley's Sinai and Palestine. 

Petrie's Tell el Hesy (Lachish). 



214 LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

Schumacher's Northern Ajlun. 

Publications of the Egyptian Exploration Fund. 

Conder*s Ordnance Survey of Sinai. 

Palmer's Desert of the Exodus. 

Tcmkin's Life and Times of Abraham. 

Tristram's Land of Israel and Moab. 

Robinson's Researches in Palestine. 

Edersheim's History of Judah and Israel. 

Thomson's Land and the Book. 

Trumbull's Kadesh Barnea. 

Merrill's East of Jordan. 

Palmer's Ancient History from the Monuments. 

Jewish Artizan Life. Delitzsch. 

The Bible and Modern Discoveries by H. A. Harper. 

The Higher Criticism and the Monuments. Sayce. 

Records of the Past. Series. 

Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. 

The Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf. 

Biblical Archaeology. J. Jacobs. 

Egypt under the Pharaohs. Brugsch. 

Commentaries. 

Other Works on the subject by Jahn, Rosenmueller, DeWette, 
Ewald, Scholz. Haneberg, Keil, Schegg, Keubel, Herzfeld, 
Ebers, Brown, Baur, Hengstenberg, Wellhausen, Merrill. 
Porter, Botta, Lenormant, Tiele, Oppert, Burckhardt, Bur- 
ton, Lane, etc. 



INDEX. -.>|.'> 



INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Section I. Definitions 3 

Section II. Sources of Biblical Archaeology 5 

Section III. Material of Biblical Archaeology 6 

Old Testament Geography. 

Section IV. Parts and Definitions 7 

Political Geography of Palestine. 

Section V. Definition 7 

Section VI. Names 8 

Section VII. Boundaries 8 

1 . Geographical Position 8 

2. Natural Boundaries and Dimensions 8 

3. Politico-Historical Boundaries and Dimensions 9 

Section VIII. Divisions (Territorial) 10 

1. Palestine before the Conquest 10 

2. Palestine after the Conquest 12 

3. Palestine under the Judges and Monarchy 16 

4. Palestine during the Asnionaean Period 20 

Section IX. Inhabitants and Politico-Historical Divis- 
ions 20 

1. Primitive Inhabitants 20 

2. Inhabitants of Patriarchal Period 21 

3. Inhabitants after the Conquest 23 

4. Inhabitants after the Captivity. ... 34 

Physical Geography of Palestine. 

Section X. Definition 25 

Section XI. General Features 26 

Section XII. Land Surface 28 

1. Mountains 28 

2. Plains and Deserts 30 

3. Valleys 32 



216 INDEX. 

Section XIII. Water Surface 33 

Section XIV. Geology 36 

Section XV. Meteorology 38 

1. Temperature 39 

2. Seasons 40 

3. Rain 41 

4. Winds 42 

Section XVI. Botany 42 

1. Trees and Shrubs 45 

2. Herbs and Flowers 53 

Section XVII. Zoology 63 

1. Mammals 63 

2. Birds 76 

3. Reptiles 84 

4. Fish 86 

5. Invertebrate and Articulated Animals 88 

Topographical Geography. 

Section XVIII. General Topography 93 

Section XIX. Special Topography 110 

Old Testament Ethnography. 

Section XX. Parts and Definitions 113 

Domestic Antiquities. 

Section XXI. The Dwelling 113 

1. Kinds of Dwellings 114 

2. Architecture of Dwellings 115 

3. Furniture of Dwellings 117 

4. The Caravansary 119 

5. Cities 119 

Section XXII. The Family 120 

1. Names 120 

2. Children 121 

3. Marriage 121 

4. Divorce 122 

5. Concubinage 123 

6. Social Status of Women 123 

7. Social Intercourse 123 

8. Servants*. 124 

9. Death and Burial 125 



INDEX. 217 

Section XXIII. The Meal 125 

Section XXIV. The Clothing 128 

1. Kinds 128 

2. Materials 128 

3. Colors 128 

4. Men's Dress 129 

5. Girdle, Head and Foot Dress 130 

6. Women's Dress and Ornaments 130 

7. The Hair 133 

8. Pigments, Cosmetics, Perfumes 133 

9. Apparel of Rank 134 

Section XXV. The Principal Occupations 134 

1. Sheep 134 

2. The Shepherd 135 

3. The Sheepfold 136 

4. Goats 136 

5. Cattle 137 

6. The Horse 137 

7. The Camel 137 

8. The Mule and Ass 138 

9. Agriculture 138 

10. The Sabbatic Year 139 

11. Grains 139 

12. Seasons 139 

13. Agricultural Implements 139 

14. Agricultural Processes 139 

15. The Fruit Harvests 140 

16. Gardening 141 

Section XXVI. The Commercial Life 141 

1. Scriptural Standpoint 141 

2. Trade Under the Kings 142 

3. Transportation 143 

4. The Monetary System 143 

5. Measurements 145 

Section XXVII. Diseases Mentioned 145 

1. The Disease of Leprosy 146 

2 Plague and Epidemic Diseases 149 

3. Diseases of the Eye 151 

4. Diseases of the Nervous System 152 

5. Diseases of Individuals 152 

[15] 



218 INDEX. 

Civil Antiquities of the Jews. 

Section XXVIII. Forms of Government 153 

1. Family , 153 

2. Patriarchal. ..." , 153 

3. Tribal 153 

4. The Eldership 154 

5. Representative 154 

6. The Shoterim 154 

7. The Judges 155 

8. The Levites 155 

9. Legislation before the Monarchy 155 

10. The Kingdom 156 

11. Inauguration 156 

12. Succession 157 

13. Functions and Privileges 157 

14. Revenues and Disbursements 157 

15. The Royal Court 158 

16. The Disruption and Fall 158 

17. After the Exile 159 

Section XXIX. Judicial Courts and Processes 159 

Section XXX. Military Affairs 164 

Sacred Antiquities of the Jews. 

Section XXXI. Sacred Seasons 167 

1. The Hebrew Feasts 167 

2. Classification 168 

3. Relation 168 

4. The Sabbath 169 

5. The Passover 169 

6. Feast of Unleavened Bread 170 

7. Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost 171 

8. Feast of Tabernacles 172 

9. The New Moon 173 

10. The Day of Atonement 174 

11. Purim 175 

12. Feast of Dedication 175 

Section XXXII. Sacred Places 176 

1. The Tabernacle 176 

2. Court of the Tabernacle 176 

3. Altar of Burnt Offering 177 



INDEX. 219 

4. The Laver 177 

5. The Tabernacle Proper 177 

6. The Holy of Holies 177 

7. Covering of the Tabernacle 177 

8. The Ark 178 

9. The Altar of Incense 178 

10. The Table of Shew-Bread 178 

11. The Golden Candlestick 179 

12. The Temple of Solomon 179 

13. The Temple of Zerubbabel 180 

14. The Synagogue 180 

Section XXXIII. Sacred Persons 181 

1. Israel — Levi — Aaron 181 

2. Consecration of the Levites 182 

3. Duties of the Levites 182 

4. Qualifications for the Priesthood 182 

5. Consecration of Priests 182 

6. Duties of Priests 183 

7. Divisions of Priests and Levites 183 

8. Priestly Dress 184 

9. High Priest's Dress 184 

10. Support of Priests and Levites 184 

11. Levitical Cities 185 

12. The Prophets 185 

13. The Nazarites 187 

14. The Rechabites 187 

15. The Judges 188 

Section XXXIV. Sacred Usages: — Sacrifices, etc 188 

1 . Classification 188 

2. Vegetable Offerings 188 

3. Presentation of Animal Sacrifices 189 

4. The Burnt Offering 190 

5. The Peace Offering 190 

6. The Sin Offering 190 

7. The Trespass Offering 191 

8. Holy and Most Holy Offerings 191 

9. The Meal Offerings 192 

10. The Daily Sacrifices 193 

11. Ceremonial Purifications 193 



220 INDEX. 

12. Vows 193 

13. The Nazarite and Rechabite 194 

14. Circumcision 194 

Section XXXV. Idolatrous Forms 194 

1. The Asherah 194 

2. Ashtoreth 194 

3. Baal 195 

4. The Brazen Serpent 195 

5. Chemosh 195 

6. Dagon 195 

7. The Golden Calf 195 

8. The High Places 196 

9. Molech 196 

10. Nebo 196 

11. Chiun, Remphan, Rephan 196 

12. Rimmon 196 

13. Tammuz 196 

14. The Teraphim 196 

15. Divination 197 

Section XXXVI. Jewish Sects, 197 

1. Samaritanism 197 

2. The Scribes 198 

3. The Pharisees 199 

4. The Sadducees 199 

5. The Essenes 199 

Literature, Science and Arts. 

Section XXXVII. Literature, Science, Arts 199 

1 . Astronomy 200 

2. Geology 201 

3. Numerical Computation 202 

4. Divisions of Time 202 

5. Medicine and Surgery 204 

6. Art of Writing, Material, etc 205 

7. Music 207 

8. Metals and Metallurgy 208 

9. Precious Stones, Engravers, etc 209 

10. Other Arts 210 

Literature 213 

Index 215 



New Brunswick Seminary Publications 



1 . Analysis of Systematic Theology, by Prof. S. M. 

Woodbridge, D.D., LL.D. 

2. Practical Catachetics, by Pi of. D. D. Demarest, 

D.D., LL.D. 

3. r Fhe Psalms, a new translation, by Prof. John De- 

Witt, D.D., LL.D., L.H.D. (Randolph & Co.) 

4. History and Characteristics of the Reformed Church 

in America, by Prof. D. D. Demarest, D.D., 
LL.D. 

5. An Arabic Manual. The Elements of Arabic 

Grammar, by Prof. J. G. Lansing, D.D. (Chas. 
Scribner's Sons.) 

6. The American Revised Version of the Book of 

Psalms, edited b} 7 Prof. J. G. Lansing, D.D. 
(Fords, Howard and Hulbert.) 

7. The Sage Library, by Prof. J. C. Van Dyke, L.H.D. 

8. The Historical Society, by Rev. W. Armitage 

Beardslee, A.M. 

9. Dort and Westminster, by Prof. D. D. Demarest, 

D.D., LL.D. 

10. Plan of the Theological Seminary. 

11. Practical Liturgies, Part I. by Prof. D. D. Demar- 

est, D.D., LL.D. 

12. Practical Liturgies, Part II. b} 7 Prof. D. D. Demar- 

est, D.D., LL.D. 

L3. Manual of Church History, by Prof. S. M. Wood- 
bridge, D.D., LL.D. 

14. Introduction Outlines of the Books of the Old 
Testament, by Prof. J. G. Lansing, D.D. 

Lo. Notes on the Constitution of the Reformed Church 
in America, bv Prof. D. I). Demarest, D.D., 
LL.D. 

10. .Synopsis of Church Government, by Prof. S. M. 
Woodbridge, D.D., LL.D. 

17. Outlines of the Archaeology of the Old Testament, 
by Prof. .1. G. Lansing, D.D. 



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